Professor Lin Chong'an: A Study on the Sutra Types and Compilation of the Ekottara Āgama

A Study on the Sutra Types and Compilation of the Ekottara Āgama

Lin Chong'an (Vipassana Magazine 27, 2004)

1. Introduction

The northern transmission of the Ekottara Āgama contains 472 suttas in total. From the first through the 446th, they're arranged in sequence — one dharma, two dharmas, three dharmas — all the way up to eleven, clearly displaying the "ekottara" (increment-by-one) format. Suttas 447–472 don't follow this pattern as strictly. The southern transmission's Aṅguttara Nikāya similarly proceeds from one to eleven dharmas. Because of differences in transmission lineage, the suttas compiled in the northern Ekottara Āgama and the southern Aṅguttara Nikāya diverge considerably. The following analysis first examines the sutra format (經型) of the Ben Shi Jing (Itivuttaka), then explores the proto-form of the Ekottara Āgama at the First Council and the subsequent additions and evolution of its texts.

2. From the Ben Shi Jing to the Proto-Ekottara Āgama

Over more than forty years of teaching, the Buddha instructed beings according to their capacities, expounding the Dharma at varying depths. To aid memorization, he sometimes arranged the teachings by increasing numerical categories. This approach took two forms: (A) the Ben Shi Jing (Itivuttaka), and (B) certain suttas from the later Qi Jing (Suttas), such as the Zhong Ji Jing, Shi Shang Jing, Zeng Yi Jing, and San Ju Jing, which were later compiled into the Dīgha Āgama. Each is described below.

A. The Ben Shi Jing (Itivuttaka)

Beyond its ascending numerical arrangement, the Ben Shi Jing has a distinctive format: it contains no nidāna (occasion or setting), but does include a concluding verse (gāthā, equivalent to geya), and its content broadly encompasses precepts, concentration, and wisdom. The numbered categories only go up to three or four dharmas, making it easy for beginners to memorize. For this reason, the Ben Shi Jing began circulating during the middle period of the Buddha's teaching ministry. This increment-by-one approach was well suited to newcomers and served as a practical tool for spreading the Dharma. Here's a single sutta from the Ben Shi Jing to illustrate:

Ben Shi Jing, Sutta 126

(01) I heard these words from the World-Honored One:

(02) Bhikkhus, know this: in brief, there are three kinds of thinking that can cause a trainee who has not yet attained steadiness of mind to fall away from the pursuit of supreme bliss.

(03) What are the three? Thoughts about family, thoughts about material gain, and thoughts of envy toward those who excel.

(04) These, in brief, are the three kinds of thinking that can cause a trainee who has not yet attained steadiness of mind to fall away from the pursuit of supreme bliss.

(05) Therefore, you should train yourselves thus: How can I keep thoughts about family from arising? How can I keep thoughts about gain from arising? How can I keep thoughts of envy from arising?

(06) Bhikkhus, you should train yourselves in this way.

(07) Then the World-Honored One, gathering up the essence of this teaching, spoke these verses:

Driven by craving-based thinking — in brief, there are three kinds. For the trainee seeking supreme bliss, these will surely stand as obstacles.

Through thoughts of family ties, of gain, and of envy — far from great bliss and great purity, the end of the fetters remains remote indeed.

Abandoning thoughts of family and gain, and of envy toward others — cultivating calm and insight with diligence, one can quickly bring all suffering to an end.

From this sutta, we can begin to see the characteristic features of the Ben Shi Jing's format:

1. Arranged by numerical category: From one dharma up to three. The sutta cited here belongs to the three-dharma category (thoughts about family, thoughts about gain, thoughts of envy).
2. No nidāna: There's no setting such as "At one time, the Buddha was staying at such-and-such a place."
3. Has a concluding verse (geya): At the end of the sutta, the Buddha restates the teaching's essence in verse.
4. Contains the Buddha's instruction on a training rule: Sometimes the text closes with "Bhikkhus, you should train yourselves in this way," marking it as a training guideline.

Another feature: when paired dharmas appear, they're presented first from the perspective of the forward flow (defilement) and then from that of reversal (liberation). For example:

Ben Shi Jing, Sutta 58

(01) I heard these words from the World-Honored One:

(02) Bhikkhus, know this: there is one thing in the world which, as it grows, increases beings' ignorance, entrenches their delusions, multiplies their defilements, and fills the evil destinies — bringing harm to many, bringing no peace or happiness, and causing the human and divine assemblies of the world to reap only futility and increasing sorrow.

(03) What is the one dharma? Wrong view. …

Ben Shi Jing, Sutta 59

(01) I heard these words from the World-Honored One:

(02) Bhikkhus, know this: there is one thing in the world which, as it grows, diminishes beings' ignorance, dispels their delusions, increases pure qualities, and frees them from the evil destinies — bringing great benefit to many, bringing great peace and happiness, and causing the human and divine assemblies of the world to reap meaning and increasing joy.

(03) What is the one dharma? Right view. …

These two consecutive suttas move from the forward flow of defilement to the reversal toward liberation — a common pattern in the compilation of the Āgamas.

In sum, the Ben Shi Jing follows its characteristic format, compiled by the increment-by-one method from one dharma to three. The numbers stop at three, and the concluding verses serve as a memorable outline, well suited for beginners learning to retain the Dharma. The Ben Shi Jing took shape during the middle period of the Buddha's ministry and was recited and transmitted by his disciples throughout India.

B. The Zhong Ji Jing and Other Suttas in the Dīgha Āgama

In his later years, the Buddha asked Śāriputra to teach the bhikkhus. Śāriputra adopted the increment-by-one format. The Zhong Ji Jing in the Dīgha Āgama records:

Bhikkhus! The Tathāgata has taught one true dharma: all beings subsist by means of food. The Tathāgata has also taught one further dharma: all beings come into being through action. This is the one dharma. The Tathāgata's teaching should be gathered together to prevent disputes, so that the holy life may long endure, bringing great benefit and peace to gods and humans alike. Bhikkhus! The Tathāgata has taught two true dharmas: name and form. There are also two dharmas: ignorance and craving. … (T1, 49c)

This sutta runs from "one true dharma" all the way to "ten true dharmas." Similarly, in the Shi Shang Jing of the Dīgha Āgama, the Buddha again has Śāriputra teach. Using the increment-by-one format, Śāriputra proceeds from "one dharma of accomplishment, one dharma of cultivation, one dharma of awakening, one dharma of cessation, one dharma of decline, one dharma of increase, one dharma hard to penetrate, one dharma of arising, one dharma to be known, one dharma to be realized," all the way up to "ten dharmas of accomplishment, ten dharmas of cultivation, ten dharmas of awakening …" through "ten dharmas to be realized," with the Buddha finally giving his endorsement. This increment-by-one format from one to ten is convenient for organizing the vast body of teachings, and it emerged during the later period of the Buddha's ministry.

The combination of (A) the Ben Shi Jing and (B) suttas like the Zhong Ji Jing described above formed the prototype for what would later become the Ekottara Āgama.

3. The Ekottara Āgama at the First Council and Its Sutra Format

At the First Council in Rājagṛha, the Ekottara Āgama was compiled using the increment-by-one method, with a clearly defined sutra format. Its main characteristics: it has a nidāna (occasion and setting), no concluding verse (geya), includes the phrase "you should train yourselves thus" (indicating a training rule), and the dharma categories run from one to ten, encompassing precepts, concentration, and wisdom. Three suttas conforming to this "standard format" are cited below.

Ekottara Āgama, Sutta 100

(01) Thus have I heard: (02) At one time, the Buddha was staying at the Jeta Grove in Anāthapiṇḍika's park at Śrāvastī. (03) Then the World-Honored One addressed the bhikkhus: "In this assembly, I do not see a single dharma which, when cultivated and cultivated again, leads to the path of hell, the path of animals, or the path of hungry ghosts — and if one is reborn among humans, leads to an extremely short lifespan. That is, the killing of living beings.

Bhikkhus! If someone takes pleasure in killing, they fall into hell, the hungry ghost realm, or the animal realm. If reborn among humans, their life is cut short. Why? Because they have severed the lives of others.

Therefore, train yourselves to refrain from killing. Thus, bhikkhus, you should train yourselves!"

(04) At that time, the bhikkhus, having heard the Buddha's words, rejoiced and put them into practice.

Ekottara Āgama, Sutta 101

(01) Thus have I heard: (02) At one time, the Buddha was staying at the Jeta Grove in Anāthapiṇḍika's park at Śrāvastī. (03) Then the World-Honored One addressed the bhikkhus: "In this assembly, I do not see a single dharma which, when cultivated and cultivated again, brings blessings in the human realm, blessings in the heavenly realm, and the realization of Nirvāṇa. That is, refraining from killing."

(04) The Buddha addressed the bhikkhus: "If someone does not kill and harbors no thought of killing, their lifespan is very long. Why? Because they do not cause harm or disturbance to others.

Therefore, bhikkhus, train yourselves to refrain from killing. Thus, bhikkhus, you should train yourselves!"

(05) At that time, the bhikkhus, having heard the Buddha's words, rejoiced and put them into practice.

Ekottara Āgama, Sutta 112

(01) Thus have I heard: (02) At one time, the Buddha was staying at the Jeta Grove in Anāthapiṇḍika's park at Śrāvastī. (03) Then the World-Honored One addressed the bhikkhus: "There are these two kinds of giving. What are the two? The gift of Dharma and the gift of material things. Bhikkhus, among all gifts, none surpasses the gift of Dharma.

Therefore, bhikkhus, always train yourselves in the gift of Dharma. Thus, bhikkhus, you should train yourselves!"

(04) At that time, the bhikkhus, having heard the Buddha's words, rejoiced and put them into practice.

From these three examples, the characteristic features of the Ekottara Āgama's format are clear:

1. Arranged by numerical category: The first two suttas belong to the one-dharma category — the one dharma being, successively, killing and refraining from killing. The third sutta belongs to the two-dharma category — the two dharmas being the gift of Dharma and the gift of material things.
2. With nidāna: Contains "At one time, the Buddha was at such-and-such a place."
3. No concluding verse (geya): The Buddha doesn't restate the teaching's essence in verse at the end.
4. Mostly contains the Buddha's instruction on a training rule: "Bhikkhus, you should train yourselves thus!"
5. When paired dharmas appear, they're presented first from the forward flow (e.g., killing), then from the reversal (e.g., refraining from killing).

So while the Ekottara Āgama and the Ben Shi Jing share certain similarities in format, the Ekottara Āgama includes nidānas, extends the dharma categories up to ten, and has longer texts without concluding verses.

At the First Council in Rājagṛha, the Ekottara Āgama was compiled under the conditions described above. Here are examples from the one-dharma and two-dharma suttas that conform to the standard format (sutta numbers follow the Taishō edition; the Foguang and Vipassana Education editions are the same):

A1. Those conforming to the standard format:

• One-dharma suttas: nos. 1–10, 11–20, 43–52, 53–62, 71–72, 77–81, 84–89, 91, 93, 100–109 (65 suttas total)
• Two-dharma suttas: nos. 110–119, 121–124, 127, 129, 133–135, 141–142, 149–150, 152, 154–157, 160, 162, 165–172, 174 (39 suttas total)

A2. Other formats — fewer and shorter:

• One-dharma suttas nos. 21–42 belong to the "Foremost Disciples" category and were included at the First Council.
• Nos. 63–70, 73–76, 90, 92, 94 belong to the "Itivuttaka" category and were added later.
• Remaining two-dharma suttas: nos. 125–126, 131–132.

At the First Council, beyond the one-dharma and two-dharma suttas listed above, most suttas in the three- through ten-dharma categories also conformed to the standard format.

Summary: The extant Ekottara Āgama has 109 one-dharma suttas and 65 two-dharma suttas — 174 in all. As the lists above show, those conforming to the A1 standard format clearly form the majority: 65 out of 109 one-dharma suttas (65/109) and 39 out of 65 two-dharma suttas (39/65). The same pattern holds for the three- through ten-dharma categories, where the standard format predominates. Suttas in the eleven-dharma category were added at a later stage.

4. The Evolution of the Northern Ekottara Āgama and the Inclusion of Longer Suttas

After the First Council, the northern transmission of the Ekottara Āgama didn't participate in the Second and Third Councils, so its texts weren't reorganized or moved into other Āgamas (the Madhyama and Dīgha). However, later reciters of the Ekottara Āgama (持增一阿含者) did move texts in from other Āgamas to supplement its content. Among the suttas in the extant northern Ekottara Āgama, those added later fall into two categories:

First category — suttas moved in from the Madhyama and Dīgha Āgamas according to numerical category:

• One-dharma suttas: nos. 82, 83, 95–99
• Two-dharma suttas: nos. 120, 128, 130, 136–137, 139, 143–148, 151, 153, 158–159, 161, 163, 173

Second category — suttas originally conforming to the standard format, but later expanded with extended nidāna sections to provide greater detail:

• Two-dharma suttas nos. 138, 140, 164 — the extended nidānas within these suttas were added later.

The increase in the volume of the northern Ekottara Āgama in its later phase was largely due to its reciters bringing in many suttas from the Dīgha and Madhyama Āgamas. Why? Partly to make the Ekottara Āgama more comprehensive on its own terms — encompassing material from the other Āgamas — and partly to flesh out the nidāna sections of the original suttas. The reciters of the Madhyama Āgama showed the same tendency, drawing in suttas from other Āgamas to make their own collection more complete.

5. Conclusion

As the foregoing shows, during the Buddha's lifetime the Ben Shi Jing and the later Zhong Ji Jing, Shi Shang Jing, Zeng Yi Jing, and San Ju Jing all used the increment-by-one method to help practitioners memorize the Dharma. At the First Council in Rājagṛha, the Ekottara Āgama was compiled using this same method. Its suttas follow a clearly defined format: they have a nidāna, no concluding verse, include the phrase "you should train yourselves thus" (indicating a training rule), arrange dharma categories from one to ten, and broadly encompass precepts, concentration, and wisdom.

Why do the northern Ekottara Āgama and the southern Aṅguttara Nikāya differ so significantly in content? The main reason lies in their different transmission lineages. The southern Aṅguttara Nikāya belongs to the Sthavira (Elders) tradition, which went through the Second and Third Councils, where the four Āgamas were reorganized. As a result, many suttas were transferred from one Āgama to another, departing from the arrangement established at the First Council. The northern Ekottara Āgama doesn't belong to the Sthavira tradition and didn't go through those later councils, so it preserves many of the original standard formats and content. Although later reciters of the Ekottara Āgama made some textual additions and moved in suttas from the Dīgha and Madhyama Āgamas, on the whole the northern Ekottara Āgama retains a great deal of the form it held at the time of the First Council.