Professor Lin Chong-an: The Core Teachings of the *Dīrgha Āgama* and the *Dīgha Nikāya*

Selected Buddhist Studies Essays

The Core Teachings of the Dīrgha Āgama and the Dīgha Nikāya

Lin Chong-an (2003)

Abstract

One core teaching worth noting in both the Northern transmission's Dīrgha Āgama and the Southern transmission's Dīgha Nikāya is the appearance of the standardized passage on the Three Trainings. Although the two collections arrange their suttas in a different order, both contain lengthy passages recording this same standardized formula. In the Dīrgha Āgama, it first appears in the Āmraṇḍa Sutta (N20); in the Dīgha Nikāya, it first appears in the Sāmaññaphala Sutta (D2). Several subsequent suttas share the same [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage], indicated by abbreviation, but their substantive content is identical. The Northern transmission's Dīrgha Āgama and the Southern transmission's Dīgha Nikāya together comprise roughly thirty-six independent suttas, of which twelve feature the [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage]. Equally worth noting is that the Dīrgha Āgama as a whole contains no other standardized passage of comparable length besides this one — a strong indication that the Three Trainings form the core teaching of the collection, rather than what later tradition claims, namely that "the Dīrgha Āgama is for refuting non-Buddhist teachers" or that it is simply "auspicious and pleasing." This paper also draws on the Śrāvakabhūmi chapter of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra to elucidate the essential meaning of the [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage], and concludes by comparing the [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage] as it appears in the Madhyama Āgama and the Saṃyukta Āgama.

I. Sutta Numbers in the Dīrgha Āgama and the Dīgha Nikāya, and the [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage]

The Āgamas are the Buddhist scriptures compiled by the Venerable Ānanda together with five hundred arhats after the parinirvāṇa of Śākyamuni Buddha. The longer texts among them were gathered into the Dīrgha Āgama, and during the reign of King Aśoka this lineage was carried south to Sri Lanka, where it eventually took shape as the Southern transmission's Dīgha Nikāya. The Dīgha Nikāya contains thirty-four suttas in all (Chinese Translation of the Southern Buddhist Canon, vols. 6–8, Miaolin Publishing House, 1994). The Northern transmission's Dīrgha Āgama, by contrast, was translated into Chinese by Buddhiyaśas and Zhu Fonian in 413 CE. It is divided into four sections (fen) and contains thirty suttas. The two collections differ in sutta order because their transmission lineages diverged after the Buddha's passing. Below is a comparison between the suttas of the Northern Dīrgha Āgama (numbered N) and their counterparts in the Southern Dīgha Nikāya (numbered D):

N1 Mahāpadāna Sutta (D14)

N2 Mahāparinirvāṇa Sutta (D16/17)N3 Daśabala Sutta (D19)

N4 Janavasabha Sutta (D18)N5 Cūḷāgatisutta (D27)N6 Cakkavatti Sīhanāda Sutta (D26)N7 Pāyāsi Sutta (D23)

N8 Mahāsudassana Sutta (D25)N9 Saṅgīti Sutta (D33)N10 Dasuttara Sutta (D34)N11 Ekottara Sutta (D--)

N12 Tripiṭaka Sutta (D--)

N13 Mahānidāna Sutta (D15)

N14 Sakkapañha Sutta (D21)

N15 Āṭānāṭiya Sutta (D24)

N16 Siṅgālovāda Sutta (D31)

N17 Pāsādika Sutta (D29)

N18 Sampasādanīya Sutta (D28)

N19 Mahāsamaya Sutta (D20)

N20 Āmraṇḍa Sutta (D3)

N21 Brahmajāla Sutta (D1)

N22 Soṇadaṇḍa Sutta (D4)

N23 Kūṭadanta Sutta (D5)

N24 Kevaddha Sutta (D11)

N25 Acelakassapa Sutta (D8)

N26 Tevijja Sutta (D13)

N27 Sāmaññaphala Sutta (D2)

N28 Poṭṭhapāda Sutta (D9)

N29 Lohicca Sutta (D12)N30 Lokasthāna Sutta (D--)

N-- Mahāli Sutta (D6)

N-- Jāliya Sutta (D7)

N-- Subha Sutta (D10)

N-- Mahāsatipaṭṭhāna Sutta (D22)

N-- Lakkhaṇa Sutta (D30)

N-- Āṭānāṭiya Sutta (D32)

From this we can see that the two collections together contain roughly thirty-six independent suttas. Of the thirty suttas in the Dīrgha Āgama, nine contain the [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage], first appearing in N20, the Āmraṇḍa Sutta. That passage begins: "When a Tathāgata appears in the world — worthy, perfectly enlightened, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, well-gone, knower of the world, unsurpassed, tamer of the untamed, teacher of gods and humans, Buddha, Bhagavān" — and ends either with "He attains the knowledge of liberation: 'Birth is exhausted, the holy life has been lived, what was to be done has been done, there is no further becoming,'" or with "This is the third knowledge attained by the monk. Ignorance has been cut off, the light of wisdom has arisen, darkness has been abandoned, the great light of wisdom has gone forth — this is the knowledge of liberation from defilements."

In N20, the Āmraṇḍa Sutta, this [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage] runs to about 4,500 characters. In suttas N22 through N29, the later occurrences abbreviate the passage with "……up to," though the content is effectively the same — except that, depending on the audience, the Buddha sometimes teaches only as far as the training in ethics and the training in concentration.

Among the thirty-four suttas of the Dīgha Nikāya, twelve contain the [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage]. It first appears in D2, the Sāmaññaphala Sutta, followed by D3 through D13. Here too, later occurrences use "……up to" as an abbreviation, with identical content underneath. The Dīgha Nikāya contains three suttas featuring this passage that are not found in the Dīrgha Āgama: D6, D7, and D10.

A core teaching running through these suttas is therefore the Three Trainings, expressed in the form of a standardized passage. Worth noting is that the entire Dīrgha Āgama and Dīgha Nikāya contain no other standardized passage of comparable length, and that twelve suttas feature this one — a fact that deserves serious attention.

II. The Occurrence of the Standardized Passage on the Three Trainings in the Sutta Text

Let us first excerpt the [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage] from the Dīrgha Āgama to see its standard form. The underlying Indic originals of these passages are consistent, but once translated into Chinese, the wording varies slightly from one occurrence to the next. Excerpts follow.

N20 Āmraṇḍa Sutta (D3):

"When a Tathāgata appears in the world, …… (middle omitted) ……up to…… there is no further becoming. This is the third knowledge attained by the monk. Ignorance has been cut off, the light of wisdom has arisen, darkness has been abandoned, the great light of wisdom has gone forth — this is the knowledge of liberation from defilements."

This [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage] runs to 4,500 characters in its full form; the omissions are marked by (middle omitted). Here the Buddha gives a detailed exposition to the māṇava on the training in ethics, the training in concentration, and the training in wisdom, aimed at achieving "unsurpassed accomplishment in knowledge and conduct." The essential meaning of this passage will be explored in Section III.

N22 Soṇadaṇḍa Sutta (D4):

"When a Tathāgata appears in the world — worthy, perfectly enlightened, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, well-gone, knower of the world, unsurpassed, tamer of the untamed, teacher of gods and humans, Buddha, Bhagavān — he realizes for himself among gods, humans, śramaṇas, and brahmins, and teaches others. His words, whether high, middling, or low, are all genuinely true, complete in meaning and flavor, and pure in the holy life. When a householder, or the son of a householder, hears this Dharma, his faith becomes pure; and with faith purified, he reflects: 'A lay life is difficult, like fetters; one who wishes to practice the holy life has no freedom. Would that I shave off my hair and beard, take up the three robes, and leave home to practice the path.' At another time, he renounces his household wealth, abandons his kin, takes up the three robes, lays aside all adornments, recites the Vinaya, and fulfills the precepts. He gives up killing and refrains from killing ……up to…… the four jhānas of mind, where he experiences bliss in the present. Why so? This comes from diligent effort, unbroken focused mindfulness, and joy in solitary retreat.' Brahmin, this is what it means to be complete in ethics." Asked further, "What, then, is wisdom?" the Buddha said: "When a monk, with a mind purified and stilled in samādhi, free from defilement, soft and pliant, established in immovability, ……up to…… attains the three knowledges, cuts off ignorance, gives rise to the light of wisdom, extinguishes darkness, brings forth the great light of the Dharma, and generates the knowledge of the exhaustion of defilements."

This abbreviated [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage] is the Buddha's exposition to the brahmin Soṇadaṇḍa on the training in ethics, the training in concentration, and the training in wisdom, used to explain what it means to be "complete in ethics" and "complete in wisdom." Here, being "complete in ethics" includes both the training in ethics and the training in concentration.

N23 Kūṭadanta Sutta (D5):

"When a Tathāgata, the True One, the Perfectly Enlightened One, appears in the world, …… someone leaves home to practice the path within the Buddha-Dharma, fully endowed with all virtues ……up to…… complete in the three knowledges, having extinguished all ignorance and darkness, fully possessed of the light of wisdom."

This abbreviated [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage] is the Buddha's exposition to the brahmin Kūṭadanta on the training in ethics, the training in concentration, and the training in wisdom, used to show that "this merit is supreme."

N24 Kevaddha Sutta (D11):

"Householder's son, when a Tathāgata, the True One, the Perfectly Enlightened One, appears in the world, endowed with the ten epithets, he realizes for himself among gods, humans, Māra, the Māra-gods, śramaṇas, and brahmins, and teaches others; his words, whether high, middling, or low, are all genuinely true, pure in meaning and flavor, complete in the holy life. When elders and householders hear this, they gain faith; and having gained faith, they observe within themselves and reflect: 'It does not befit me to remain at home. If I remain at home, I am bound by hooks and chains and unable to practice the holy life in purity. Would that I shave off my hair and beard, take up the three robes, leave home to practice the path, and cultivate all virtues ……up to…… until I have accomplished the three knowledges, extinguished all darkness, and brought forth the great light of wisdom."

This abbreviated [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage] is the Buddha's exposition to the householder's son Kevaddha on the training in ethics, the training in concentration, and the training in wisdom, used to explain "the basis of spiritual power through instruction."

N25 Acelakassapa Sutta (D8):

"When a Tathāgata, the True One, appears in the world, ……up to…… the four jhānas, where one experiences happiness in the present life ……Kassapa, that monk, with a mind of samādhi, ……up to…… attains the three knowledges, extinguishing all ignorance and darkness, giving rise to the light of wisdom — namely, the arising of the knowledge of the exhaustion of defilements."

This abbreviated [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage] is the Buddha's exposition to the naked ascetic Kassapa on the training in ethics, the training in concentration, and the training in wisdom, used to explain what is "complete in ethics, complete in view, supreme, most excellent, subtle, and without equal." Here the translation is missing the epithet "the Perfectly Enlightened One" after "the True One." The closing sentences of these five suttas also show that, although their content is the same, the translated wording varies slightly.

N26 Tevijja Sutta (D13):

"When a Tathāgata, the True One, the Perfectly Enlightened One, appears in the world, endowed with the ten epithets, ……up to…… the four jhānas, where he delights in the present life. Why so? Because of diligent effort, unbroken focused mindfulness, joy in solitary retreat, and freedom from negligence. He pervades one direction with a mind of loving-kindness, and likewise the other directions, spreading widely without bound, without duality, without measure, without resentment, without harm; he sports in this mind and delights himself. With a mind of compassion, of sympathetic joy, and of equanimity, he pervades one direction, and likewise the other directions, spreading widely without bound, without duality, without measure, without resentment, without harmful intent; he sports in this mind and delights himself."

This passage is the Buddha's exposition to Vāseṭṭha and Bhāradvāja on the training in ethics and the training in concentration, used to explain the "brahmacariya path." The training in wisdom is not taught here — only the training in ethics and the training in concentration, with identical content, are expounded — because the teaching was given in response to the questioners' inquiry and extended only as far as the question required.

N27 Sāmaññaphala Sutta (D2):

"Furthermore, Great King, when a Tathāgata, the True One, the Perfectly Enlightened One, appears in the world, …… one who has entered my Dharma, ……up to…… the three knowledges, extinguishing all darkness, bringing forth the great light of wisdom — namely, the realization of the knowledge of the exhaustion of defilements. Why so? Because of diligent effort, unbroken focused mindfulness, joy in solitary retreat, and freedom from negligence."

This abbreviated [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage] is the Buddha's exposition to King Ajātasattu, son of Vedehī, on the training in ethics, the training in concentration, and the training in wisdom, used to explain "the fruit of the śramaṇa's life visible here and now."

N28 Poṭṭhapāda Sutta (D9):

"When a Tathāgata appears in the world — the True One, the Perfectly Enlightened One, endowed with the ten epithets, …… someone leaves home to practice the path within the Buddha-Dharma, ……up to…… having cast off the five hindrances that obscure the mind, he abandons desire and evil, unwholesome states; with applied thought and sustained thought, born of seclusion, filled with rapture and joy, he enters the first jhāna. ……(middle omitted)…… He gives up the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception and enters the cessation of perception and feeling. Brahmin, with the cessation of perception in the base of neither-perception-nor-non-perception, one enters the cessation of perception and feeling. From this one knows that perception arises from causes and conditions, and that perception ceases from causes and conditions."

This passage is somewhat longer; omissions are marked by (middle omitted). Here the Buddha expounds to the brahmin Poṭṭhapāda on the training in ethics and the training in concentration, to show that "perception arises from causes and conditions, and perception ceases from causes and conditions." The training in wisdom is not taught here — again, only the training in ethics and the training in concentration, with identical content, are given, in response to the questioner's inquiry.

N29 Lohicca Sutta (D12):

"When a Tathāgata, the True One, the Perfectly Enlightened One, appears in the world, ……up to…… attaining the three knowledges, cutting off ignorance, giving rise to the light of wisdom, removing all darkness, and bringing forth the great light of the Dharma — namely, the realization of the knowledge of the exhaustion of defilements."

This abbreviated [Three Trainings · Standardized Passage] is the Buddha's exposition to the brahmin Lohicca on the training in ethics, the training in concentration, and the training in wisdom, used to explain that "when the foremost Bhagavān is no longer in the world, [the teaching] cannot be overturned."

The above cites nine sūtras from the northern transmission of the Dīrghāgama, while in the southern transmission's Dīgha Nikāya, in addition to those same nine sūtras, there are three more sūtras that also contain the 【Threefold Training • Formulaic Passage】:

N--Mahāli Sutta (D6):

Friend! When a Tathāgata has arisen in the world, an Arahant, a Perfectly Awakened One,…… (Chinese Translation of the Southern Transmission's Buddhist Canon, vol. 6, p. 172, Miaolin Publishing House, 1994)

In its abbreviated form, this 【Threefold Training • Formulaic Passage】 is the Buddha's exposition of the training in morality, the training in concentration, and the training in wisdom to Mahāli—without touching on the question of "whether life and body are one, or different."

N--Jāliya Sutta (D7):

Friend! When a Tathāgata has arisen in the world, (the Tathāgata) is an Arahant, a Perfectly Awakened One,…… (Chinese Translation of the Southern Transmission's Buddhist Canon, vol. 6, p. 175)

In its abbreviated form, this 【Threefold Training • Formulaic Passage】 is the Buddha's exposition of the three trainings to Jāliya, without touching on the question of "whether life and body are one, or different."

N--Subha Sutta (D10):

Furthermore, Ānanda! What is the aggregate of morality that the Venerable Gotama praises, whereby he guides, leads, and settles his disciples?

(a) Young man! Now, the Tathāgata has arisen in the world, an Arahant,……

And what, Ānanda, is the aggregate of holy concentration that the Venerable Gotama praises, whereby he guides, leads, and settles his disciples?

(b) Young man! How does a bhikkhu guard the doors of his faculties?……

And what, Ānanda, is the aggregate of wisdom that the Venerable Gotama praises, whereby he guides, leads, and settles his disciples in their place?

(c) Here a bhikkhu, his mind thus pacified and purified,……at the moment of liberation, the knowledge of liberation arises, and he realizes: "Destroyed is birth, the holy life has been lived, what had to be done has been done, I shall no longer return to this existence." (Chinese Translation of the Southern Transmission's Buddhist Canon, vol. 6, p. 222)

In its abbreviated form, this 【Threefold Training • Formulaic Passage】 is Venerable Ānanda's exposition of the three trainings—the aggregates of morality, concentration, and wisdom—to Subha, given not long after the Buddha's passing. The three passages (a), (b), and (c) that Ānanda offers correspond respectively to the 【Morality Training • Formulaic Passage】, the 【Concentration Training • Formulaic Passage】, and the 【Wisdom Training • Formulaic Passage】.

Taken together, the northern transmission Dīrghāgama passages N20, N22–29 and the southern transmission Dīgha Nikāya passages D6, D7, and D10 make for twelve sūtras that teach the same form of the Threefold Training. This shows not only the Buddha's emphasis on the Threefold Training, but also that it is the central concern of the Dīrghāgama and the Dīgha Nikāya—and not merely the later claim that "the Dīrghāgama refutes the heterodox paths" (T23, p504), nor simply that it is "auspicious and pleasing." The repeated appearance of these formulaic passages signals both their importance and how easily they lodge in the listener's memory. Of course, there are many teachings on the Threefold Training scattered throughout the Dīrghāgama outside this formulaic form as well, but they are generally brief sūtra passages.

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3. The Key Points of the Threefold Training • Formulaic Passage

Based on the previously cited Subha Sutta (D10), we may broadly divide the 【Threefold Training • Formulaic Passage】, and below, drawing on the twelve inferior conditions and one superior condition from the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra (T30, p396b–p397c), we offer a finer subdivision and explain its key meanings. The Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra says:

These are: self-completeness, other-completeness, aspiration for the good dharmas, proper renunciation, the observance of moral discipline, sense-faculty discipline, knowing the measure in eating, diligent practice of the yoga of awakening during the early and late watches of the night, abiding with clear comprehension, delighting in seclusion, purification of the hindrances, and reliance on samādhi.…

From self-completeness up through reliance on samādhi, this is known as the cultivation of inferior conditions. Reliance on the instruction and guidance of others in the Four Noble Truths, together with right attentiveness as drawn out by right reasoning, is known as the cultivation of superior conditions.

This treatise lists, in order, twelve inferior conditions and one superior condition—thirteen conditions in all. Following this scheme, the 【Threefold Training • Formulaic Passage】 from the Ambhaṭṭha Sutta (N20, D3) is subdivided below, and its key meanings briefly explained.

(1) The Morality Aggregate • Formulaic Passage

【1. Inferior Condition: Self-Completeness; 2. Other-Completeness】 Sūtra passage:

When a Tathāgata has arisen in the world—an Arahant, a Perfectly Awakened One, a Knower of Reality, one possessed of complete perfect conduct, the Well-Gone One, the Knower of the World, the Unsurpassed One, the Tamer of Men, the Teacher of Gods and Humans, the Buddha, the World-Honored One—he, among all gods, humans, śramaṇas, brāhmaṇas, gods, māras, and brahmā kings, has realized the truth for himself and teaches the Dharma to people. His words are excellent at the beginning, excellent in the middle, and excellent at the end; their meaning is complete, pointing to a pure way of life.

The key point of this passage is being able to hear the true Dharma and give rise to pure faith. The Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra says:

What is self-completeness? It means having well obtained a human body, being born in a holy land, having no sensory defects, possessing excellent conditions and pure faith, and being free from karmic hindrances.

What is other-completeness? It means that Buddhas have appeared in the world, taught the correct Dharma, the Dharma teaching has long endured, and the Dharma continues to be practiced; one is the object of others' compassion.… What is meant by "teaching the correct Dharma"? It means that the World-Honored Buddhas, out of compassion for all śrāvakas, have appeared in the world and expounded the immeasurable Dharma teachings of the Four Noble Truths—the true nature of suffering, its origin, its cessation, and the path.

【3. Aspiration for the Good Dharmas】 Sūtra passage:

If a householder, a householder's son, or someone of any other background hears the true Dharma, faith and joy immediately arise, and with a heart full of faith and joy he thinks: "Bound by wife and children, I now live at home and cannot purify and perfectly cultivate the holy life. Would it not be better now to shave off my hair and beard, don the three robes, and leave home to cultivate the path?"

The key point of this passage is the arising of the mind of renunciation. The Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra says:

What is aspiration for the good dharmas? It refers to one who, having heard the true Dharma either from a Buddha or from a disciple, gains pure faith. Having gained pure faith, he should reflect as follows: "Life at home is troubled, dwelling amid the dust; leaving home is open and spacious, as though one dwelt in empty space. Therefore, I should now abandon all—wife, children, relatives, wealth, grain, and treasures—and within the good Dharma and Vinaya, properly renounce the household life and enter the homeless state." Once gone forth, he diligently cultivates the correct practices and brings them to fulfillment. The aspiration that arises within him toward the good dharmas is called aspiration for the good dharmas.

【4. Proper Renunciation】 Sūtra passage:

At another time, he abandons his household goods, casts off his kin, shaves his hair and beard, dons the three robes, and leaves home to cultivate the path.

This passage connects the previous section's "aspiration for the good dharmas" with the actual act of going forth, showing that the three trainings that follow center on the ordained sangha as the main practitioners. The key point, as the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra says:

What is proper renunciation? It means that, impelled by this strong aspiration for the good dharmas, one receives full ordination through the fourfold upasampadā ceremony, or undertakes the ascetic precepts and learns the śīla.

【5. Observance of Moral Discipline】 Sūtra passage:

In common with those gone forth, he abandons adornments, abides perfectly by the precepts, does not harm beings, casts away weapons, harbors conscience and a sense of shame, and cherishes kindness toward all—this is non-killing. Casting away the thought of stealing, he takes only what is given; his mind is pure, with no thought of theft—this is non-stealing. Abandoning lust, he purely cultivates the holy life, diligent and vigorous, undefiled by desire, and dwells in purity—this is chastity. Abandoning false speech, he is truthful and without deceit, not deceiving others—this is non-falsehood. (Middle portion omitted) Mānava! As for other śramaṇas and brāhmaṇas who, feeding on the faith-offerings of others, pursue the wrong path and make their living through wrong means—saying this country is superior to that, or that country is inferior to this; claiming that country is better than this, or this one is inferior; reading auspicious and inauspicious signs, speaking of prosperity and decline—such things do not exist among those who have entered my Dharma. One simply cultivates the holy precepts with a mind free of attachment, with inner joy and gladness."

This sūtra passage is quite long; the omitted sections are marked with (middle portion omitted). The key point of this lengthy passage is the constant guarding of the precepts, encompassing bodily discipline, verbal discipline, and purity of livelihood. The Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra says:

What is the observance of moral discipline? It refers to one who, having thus properly renounced the world, abides in full discipline, firmly guarding the distinct analytic precepts, perfect in deportment and conduct, viewing even minor offenses with great fear, and undertaking the study of all points of training.

(2) The Concentration Aggregate • Formulaic Passage

【6. Sense-Faculty Discipline】 Sūtra passage:

Though the eye sees forms, it does not grasp at their features; the eye is not bound by forms—it remains firm and still, without attachment, without anxiety, letting no evil leak through, firmly upholding the precepts, and well guarding the eye faculty. The ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind are likewise. He skillfully steers the six sense contacts, protecting and taming them, bringing them to peace. Just as a skilled charioteer on level ground holds whip and reins to keep a four-horse carriage from leaving the track, so a bhikkhu steers the six faculties, peaceful and unerring.

The key point of this passage is cultivating mindfulness to safeguard the mind. The Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra says:

What is sense-faculty discipline? It refers to one who, on the basis of the observance of moral discipline, guards right mindfulness, cultivates constant mindfulness, uses mindfulness to guard the mind, and abides in a state of evenness. Having seen a form with the eye, he does not grasp at its features or at points of beauty. Fearing that, if he does not cultivate and guard the eye faculty through sense discipline, all the unwholesome states of greed and sorrow in his mind will leak out, he therefore cultivates this discipline there, guarding the eye faculty, and practices sense discipline with respect to the eye. For such a practitioner, having heard a sound with the ear, smelled an odor with the nose, tasted a flavor with the tongue, felt a touch with the body, or cognized a Dharma with the mind, he does not grasp at features or at points of beauty. Fearing that, if he does not cultivate and guard the mind faculty through sense discipline, all the unwholesome states of greed and sorrow in his mind will leak out, he therefore cultivates this discipline there, guarding the mind faculty, and practices sense discipline with respect to the mind.

【7. Knowing the Measure in Eating】 Sūtra passage:

He possesses such holy morality, has the holy faculties, and knows the measure in eating. He doesn't crave flavors, but takes food to nourish the body, so that no painful feeling arises and he doesn't grow arrogant. He keeps the body in balance so that old suffering ceases and new suffering doesn't arise; with strength and no trouble, he brings bodily ease. Just as one applies medicine to a sore to heal it—not for adornment and not out of pride—so, Mānava, a bhikkhu knows the measure in eating without arrogance or indulgence. It's also like oiling a cart to make it run smoothly and accomplish its task of carrying goods. So a bhikkhu knows the measure in eating in order to cultivate the path.

The key point of this passage is understanding moderate eating. The Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra says:

What is knowing the measure in eating? It refers to one who, having guarded the faculties as described, eats with right discernment—not for amusement, not for pride, not for adornment, not for elegance, but to keep the body going, to provide temporary support, to dispel hunger and thirst, to uphold the holy life, to cut off old feelings, to prevent new feelings from arising, and to maintain his existence, strength, well-being, blamelessness, and peaceful abiding.

【8. Practice of the Yoga of Awakening】 Sūtra passage:

Mānava! A bhikkhu thus accomplishes holy morality, has the holy faculties, knows the measure in eating, and in the early and late watches of the night is diligent in awakening. During the day, whether walking or sitting, he constantly maintains mindfulness and a one-pointed mind, removing the hindrances. During the first watch of the night, whether walking or sitting, he constantly maintains mindfulness and a one-pointed mind, removing the hindrances; at the middle watch, he lies down on his right side, mindful to rise at the appointed time, fixing his thoughts on light, his mind without confusion; at the last watch, he rises and reflects, whether walking or sitting, constantly maintaining mindfulness and a one-pointed mind, removing the hindrances.

The key point of this passage is being able to walk in meditation or sit quietly through the early and late watches of the night. The Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra says:

What is the diligent practice of the yoga of awakening during the early and late watches of the night? It refers to one who, having thus kept to the right measure in eating, during the daytime portion, in the two postures of walking and sitting, purifies his mind through practices that overcome obstacles. During the first watch of the night, in the two postures of walking and sitting, he purifies his mind through practices that overcome obstacles. Past this watch, he leaves his dwelling to wash his feet, [returns to his dwelling], lies down on his right side with his feet neatly stacked, abides in the perception of light, with right mindfulness, right knowledge, and the thought of rising. During the last watch of the night, he quickly awakens and, in the two postures of walking and sitting, purifies his mind through practices that overcome obstacles.

【9. Abiding with Clear Comprehension】 Sūtra passage:

A bhikkhu possesses such full holy morality, has the holy faculties, knows the measure in eating, and in the early and late watches of the night is diligent in awakening, constantly maintaining mindfulness and a one-pointed mind, without confusion.

How does a bhikkhu's mindfulness remain without confusion? Such a bhikkhu, with diligence and without slackening, contemplates the body in the body, mindful and not forgetful, removing worldly greed and sorrow; he contemplates the body as external, and contemplates the body both internally and externally, with diligence and without slackening, mindful and not forgetful, abandoning worldly greed and sorrow. Contemplation of feelings, mind, and dharmas is likewise. This is how a bhikkhu's mindfulness remains without confusion.

What is a one-pointed mind? Such a bhikkhu—whether going out or coming back, whether looking to the left or right, whether bending or stretching, whether lifting up or laying down, whether holding his robes and bowl, whether receiving food and drink, whether going to relieve himself, whether sleeping or waking, whether sitting, standing, speaking, or silent—at all times constantly maintains mindfulness and a one-pointed mind, never losing his dignified bearing. This is a one-pointed mind. It is like a person walking with a great multitude: whether in front, in the middle, or at the back, he always remains at ease, without fear. Mānava! So a bhikkhu, whether going out or coming back,……even in speech and silence, constantly maintains mindfulness and a one-pointed mind, free from anxiety.

The key point of this passage is the ability, when walking, dwelling, sitting, or lying down, to maintain clear comprehension at all times. The Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra says:

What is abiding with clear comprehension? It refers to one who, having thus diligently cultivated the yoga of awakening—when going or coming, abides with clear comprehension; when looking or gazing, abides with clear comprehension; when bending or stretching, abides with clear comprehension; when wearing the saṅghāṭī and carrying his robe and bowl, abides with clear comprehension; when eating, drinking, chewing, or tasting, abides with clear comprehension; when walking, dwelling, sitting, or lying down, abides with clear comprehension; when waking, abides with clear comprehension; whether speaking or silent, abides with clear comprehension; when shaking off fatigue and sleep, abides with clear comprehension.

【10. Delighting in Seclusion】 Sūtra passage:

A bhikkhu possesses such holy morality, has the holy faculties, knows the measure in eating, and in the early and late watches of the night is diligent in awakening, constantly maintaining mindfulness and a one-pointed mind, without confusion. He delights in solitary abodes—at the foot of a tree, in a charnel ground, in a mountain cave, in the open, or amid refuse heaps.

The key point of this passage is allowing body and mind to withdraw from attachments. The Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra says:

What is delighting in seclusion? It refers to one who, having rightly cultivated the ground of initial practice through these good dharmas, abandons all attachment to bed and seat, and dwells in the Āraṇya, at the foot of trees, in empty houses, in mountain valleys, peaks, and caves, in heaps of grass and open ground, in charnel grounds and forest groves, in spacious plains, and at the margins.

【11. Purification of the Hindrances】 Sūtra passage:

At the proper time he goes for alms, returns and washes his hands and feet, arranges his robe and bowl, sits cross-legged, straightens his body and right intention, and directs his thoughts forward. He removes stinginess and greed, his mind not abiding with them; he extinguishes hatred, free of resentment and enmity, his mind dwelling in purity, filled with loving-kindness and compassion; he dispels drowsiness and sleep, fixing his thoughts on light, his mindfulness without confusion; he cuts away restless thinking, his mind not abiding with it, turning inward to stillness, extinguishing the mind of restless thinking; he cuts through doubt, having crossed beyond the net of doubt, his mind settled in the good dharmas. It is as when a slave boy is given a surname by a great house—peaceful and freed, no longer a servant, his mind rejoicing, free from sorrow and fear. (Middle portion omitted) Like one weighed down by debt, long imprisoned, or crossing a great wilderness—he sees himself still not free.

This sūtra passage is somewhat long; the omitted sections are marked with (middle portion omitted). The key point is removing the five hindrances. The Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra says:

How are the five hindrances purified? One who dwells in a forest refuge (āraṇya), at the foot of a tree, or in an empty room purifies the mind of the five hindrances — sensual desire, ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and remorse, and doubt. With the mind thus cleansed and free from these hindrances, one abides in excellent and supreme samādhi.

【12. Reliance on Samādhi】Sūtra passage:

When the mind is veiled and obscured by the hindrances, the eye of wisdom grows dim. So one strives earnestly to abandon sensual desire and unwholesome states, and with applied and sustained thought, attains joy and pleasure born of seclusion, entering the first jhāna. That joy and pleasure suffuse the body, filling and overflowing it, leaving no part untouched — just as a skilled bath attendant might soak medicinal herbs in a vessel of water until both the inside and outside are thoroughly moistened, nothing left dry. (omitted) O māṇava! When a monk thus enters the fourth jhāna, his mind neither increases nor decreases nor wavers; he abides in a state free from attachment and aversion, wholly unmoved. This is the fourth direct experience of pleasure, attained here and now in this very life. How so? Through diligent, unremitting effort, unscattered mindfulness, and delight in quiet seclusion.

This passage is rather long; omissions are marked "(omitted)." Its essence lies in the practice of the four jhānas. The Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra states:

What is reliance on samādhi? Having cut off the five hindrances in this way, one distances oneself from the mental defilements that follow the mind, and from sensual desires and unwholesome states. With applied and sustained thought, one attains joy and pleasure born of seclusion, fully and securely abiding in the first dhyāna. When applied and sustained thought grow still, with internal purity and the mind gathered into one point, free from applied and sustained thought, joy and pleasure born of concentration arise, and one fully and securely abides in the second dhyāna. Having abandoned craving for joy, one abides in equanimity, mindfulness, and right knowledge, experiencing pleasure through the body. As the Noble Ones declare: abiding in happiness with equanimity and mindfulness fully established, one fully and securely abides in the third dhyāna. Having completely set aside pleasure and pain, with joy and sorrow both faded away, one experiences neither pain nor pleasure, with equanimity and mindfulness made pure, and fully and securely abides in the fourth dhyāna.

(3) [Wisdom • Set Formula]

【13. Superior Condition】Sūtra passage:

Having attained a concentrated mind that is pure, undefiled, pliant, and well-tamed, abiding in the unmoving state, he generates a mind of transformation within his own body, creating a separate body with all limbs complete and faculties intact. He reflects: "This body, formed of the four great elements, is transformed into that body. This body is one thing, that body is another; yet from this body a mind arises that transforms into that body, complete in every faculty and limb." Just as a person drawing a sword from its sheath thinks, "The sheath is one thing, the sword another — yet the sword comes forth from the sheath." Or as a person twisting hemp into rope thinks, "The hemp is one thing, the rope another — yet the rope comes from the hemp." (omitted) O māṇava! Thus a monk, with a pure concentrated mind abiding in the unmoving state, attains the realization of undefiled wisdom, until he no longer undergoes renewed existence. This is the third knowledge the monk attains. Having cut off ignorance, the light of wisdom is born; having abandoned darkness, the great light of wisdom shines forth: this is undefiled wisdom-light.

This passage is very long; omissions are marked "(omitted)." Its essence lies in the attainment of the three knowledges and nirvāṇa. The Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra states:

By practicing in this gradual way, one progresses, grows, and ascends ever higher, cultivating and accumulating the conditions: first, self-perfection, culminating in reliance on samādhi. One attains a mind that is pure and bright, free of all blemish, far from accompanying defilements, honest and capable, dwelling unmoved. If one then receives instruction and guidance from another based on the Four Noble Truths — for the purpose of fully understanding, completely eradicating, realizing, and cultivating them — one gains the capacity to generate right intention grounded in reason, and with the right view that precedes it, enters true direct realization of the Four Noble Truths, achieving complete liberation and attaining parinirvāṇa in the realm without remainder of clinging.

The above citations of the twelve inferior conditions and one superior condition from the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra (Śrāvaka Section) help us grasp the structure of the [Three Trainings • Set Formula] and make clear that the core teaching of the Dīgha Āgama and the Dīgha Nikāya is the Three Trainings — not merely "refuting non-Buddhist doctrines." The passages in these two collections that do refute non-Buddhist wrong views appear only in scattered texts such as the Pāyāsi Sūtra (N7, D23), the Sampasādanīya Sūtra (N18, D28), and the Brahmajāla Sūtra (N21, D1), rather than recurring in the systematic, repeated pattern of the [Three Trainings • Set Formula].

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IV. Comparison with the Majjhima Āgama and the Saṃyutta Āgama

The [Three Trainings • Set Formula] also appears in full or abbreviated form in many passages of the Majjhima Āgama — for example: (80) the Kaṭṭhāvatthu Sūtra, (104) the Udayin Sūtra, (146) the Nāga Sūtra, (182) the Majjhimadesa Sūtra, and (204) the Rāma Sūtra. In (80) the Kaṭṭhāvatthu Sūtra, Venerable Aniruddha addresses the monks:

(1) [Precepts • Set Formula]

Friends! Having grown weary of household life, I reflected: "Household life is cramped and dusty, full of toil. The path of renunciation is open and vast. Here at home, I am bound by shackles, unable to practice the holy life for the rest of my days. Let me abandon my wealth, whether little or much, and my relatives, whether few or many, shave off my hair and beard, don the ochre robe, and with deep faith leave the household life for the homeless path." Friends! So I did — abandoning my wealth, whether little or much, and my relatives, whether few or many, shaving off my hair and beard, donning the ochre robe, and with deep faith leaving the household life for the homeless path.

Friends! After going forth and renouncing my clan, I took up the monk's training, practiced the precepts, and guarded the path to liberation. I carefully observed proper conduct and etiquette; seeing even the slightest fault, I was filled with concern, and upheld the training precepts.

Friends! I refrained from killing, abandoned killing, laid aside knives and weapons... (omitted) I also trained myself to be thoroughly content: clothing enough to cover the body, food enough to sustain it. Wherever I went, I carried my robes and bowl, wandering without attachment — like a hawk soaring through the sky on its two wings. Friends! I was just so: wherever I went, I carried my robes and bowl, wandering without attachment. (omitted)

(2) [Samādhi • Set Formula]

Friends! Having fulfilled this noble aggregate of precepts and learned thorough contentment, guarding the sense faculties with right awareness in all activities, I trained myself to dwell alone in seclusion — in a remote place, at the foot of a tree in a quiet open spot, in a mountain cave, on a grass spread in the open air, in a forest, or among charnel grounds. Friends! Having gone to a secluded place or to the foot of a tree in a quiet open spot, I spread out my sitting mat, sat cross-legged, held my body upright and my intention upright, turned my attention inward, and cut off craving and brooding. My mind was free from conflict. (omitted)

Friends! I had cut off these five hindrances, these defilements of mind that weaken wisdom, and was free from sensual desire and unwholesome states... until I attained and dwelt in the fourth jhāna.

(3) [Wisdom • Set Formula]

Friends! With a concentrated mind thus pure, undefiled, pliant, and well-established, I gained the unmoving mind and trained to realize the knowledge and power of psychic attainments. (omitted)

Friends! With a concentrated mind thus pure, undefiled, pliant, and well-established, I gained the unmoving mind and trained to realize the knowledge and power of the ending of defilements. Friends! I knew this suffering as it truly is, I knew the arising of suffering, I knew the cessation of suffering, I knew the path leading to the cessation of suffering as it truly is. I knew defilement, I knew the arising of defilement, I knew the cessation of defilement, I knew the path leading to the cessation of defilement as it truly is. Having thus known and seen, my mind was liberated from the defilement of sensual desire, the defilement of becoming, and the defilement of ignorance. Liberated, I knew that liberation: birth is exhausted, the holy life is fulfilled, the task is done, there is no return to any further existence. I knew this as it truly is." (T1, p552b)

This passage is very long; omissions are marked "(omitted)." Still, it is shorter than the Ambaṭṭha Sūtra (N20) in the Dīgha Āgama. Comparison shows it lacks the passage on "the Tathāgata appearing in the world" along with its various similes, but the content of the Three Trainings is identical, and renunciants remain the central figures.

In (104) the Udayin Sūtra, the Blessed One addresses Anagh:

"Anagh! When a Tathāgata, Worthy One, Perfectly Enlightened One, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, Sublime One, knower of the world, unsurpassed tamer of those to be tamed, teacher of gods and humans, the Buddha, the Blessed One, appears in the world... He abandons the five hindrances, those defilements of mind that weaken wisdom, and free from sensual desire and unwholesome states... attains and dwells in the fourth jhāna. With a concentrated mind thus pure, undefiled, pliant, and well-established, he gains the unmoving mind and strives to realize the knowledge and power of the ending of defilements. He knows this suffering as it truly is, knows the arising of suffering, knows the cessation of suffering, knows the path leading to the cessation of suffering as it truly is. He knows defilement, knows the arising of defilement, knows the cessation of defilement, knows the path leading to the cessation of defilement as it truly is. Having thus known and seen, his mind is liberated from the defilement of sensual desire, the defilement of becoming, and the defilement of ignorance. Liberated, he knows that liberation: birth is exhausted, the holy life is fulfilled, the task is done, there is no return to any further existence. He knows this as it truly is." (T1, p595a)

Although this passage appears in abbreviated form, the meaning conveyed by the [Three Trainings • Set Formula] is identical from beginning to end. In (204) the Rāma Sūtra, the [Three Trainings • Set Formula] that the Blessed One teaches the five monks is exactly the same as in this sūtra.

The [Three Trainings • Set Formula] in the above Majjhima Āgama passages is shorter than that in the Dīgha Āgama and lacks the similes.

As for the [Three Trainings • Set Formula] in the Saṃyutta Āgama, the passages are shorter still. For example, in Saṃyutta Āgama sūtra 636:

(1) [Precepts • Set Formula]

Monks, when a Tathāgata, Worthy One, Perfectly Enlightened One, accomplished in knowledge and conduct, Sublime One, knower of the world, unsurpassed tamer of those to be tamed, teacher of gods and humans, Buddha, Blessed One, appears in the world — he teaches the true Dharma: good in the beginning, good in the middle, good in the end, of good meaning and good phrasing, pure and complete, revealing the holy life. When a young man or young woman of good family hears the Dharma from the Buddha and gains pure faith, they train in this way: seeing the faults of household life — its pleasures bound up with troubles and fetters — they delight in seclusion and go forth, not delighting in the home, entering the homeless life, desiring complete purity for the rest of their days, a pure and bright holy life. "Let me shave off my hair and beard, don the ochre robe, and with right faith go forth from home into homelessness." So thinking, they let go of wealth and family, shave off their hair and beard, don the ochre robe, and with right faith go forth from home into homelessness. They rectify their bodily conduct, guard against the four kinds of verbal wrongdoing, maintain pure livelihood, and train in the noble precepts.

(2) [Samādhi • Set Formula]

They guard the sense doors and protect the mind with right mindfulness. When the eye sees a form, they do not grasp at its features. Were they to abide in undisciplined conduct regarding the eye faculty, worldly greed, sorrow, and unwholesome states would constantly leak into the mind; [instead,] they establish right discipline regarding the eye. The same applies to the ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind. Having fulfilled these noble precepts and well guarded the sense doors, they maintain wise right knowledge in all activities — coming and going, looking about, bending and stretching, sitting, lying down, waking, speaking, and keeping silent. Thus accomplished in holy precepts, guarding the sense doors, with right knowledge and right mindfulness, they dwell in quiet seclusion — sitting alone in an empty space, at the foot of a tree, or in a vacant hut, body upright, mind mindful, resting steadily. They cut off worldly [greed and sorrow], abandon sensual desire, and completely cleanse the mind of sensual desire. They cut off ill will, sloth and torpor, restlessness and remorse, and doubt; abandon them; and completely cleanse the mind of them. They cut off the five hindrances — those things that trouble the mind, weaken the power of wisdom, form obstacles, and do not lead toward nirvāṇa. (T2, p176a)

In this passage, the [Precepts • Set Formula] includes purity of body, speech, and livelihood; the [Samādhi • Set Formula] contains the same removal of the five hindrances but does not mention the four jhānas. This sūtra belongs to the "foundations of mindfulness" section, so after the precepts and samādhi formulas it goes on to teach the four foundations of mindfulness. Where wording has been modified in citation, changes are marked with [].

The shortest complete [Three Trainings • Set Formula] in the Saṃyutta Āgama appears in sūtra 832:

Thus have I heard: At one time the Buddha was dwelling in the Jeta Grove, the park of Anāthapiṇḍada in Sāvatthī. At that time, the Blessed One addressed the monks: "There are three trainings. What are the three? The higher training in ethics, the higher training in mind, and the higher training in wisdom.

(1) [Precepts • Set Formula] a. What is the higher training in ethics? b. When a monk abides by the precepts, the Pātimokkha, with complete propriety of conduct and behavior, seeing even minor transgressions as cause for concern, and upholding the training precepts — this is called the higher training in ethics.

(2) [Samādhi • Set Formula] a. What is the higher training in mind? b. When a monk, abandoning unwholesome states, with applied and sustained thought, attains joy and pleasure born of seclusion, and fully abides in the first jhāna — up to fully abiding in the fourth jhāna — this is called the higher training in mind.

(3) [Wisdom • Set Formula] a. What is the higher training in wisdom? b. When a monk knows this noble truth of suffering as it truly is, knows this noble truth of the origin of suffering, this noble truth of the cessation of suffering, and this noble truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering as it truly is — this is called the higher training in wisdom."

When the Buddha had spoken, the monks, having heard the Blessed One's words, rejoiced and followed the teaching. (T2, p213c)

The full text is quoted here to show how brief and precise the Saṃyutta Āgama wording is. Here the Blessed One himself teaches the [Three Trainings • Set Formula] in its short, complete form, along with its essential meaning.

The previously cited sūtras make clear that the [Three Trainings • Set Formula] becomes progressively shorter from the Dīgha Āgama through the Majjhima Āgama to the Saṃyutta Āgama — fully consistent with what the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra states:

The sūtra collection consists of four Āgamas: first, the Saṃyukta Āgama; second, the Majjhima Āgama; third, the Dīrgha Āgama; fourth, the Ekottara Āgama. The Saṃyukta Āgama is so named because in it the Blessed One, responding to the various capacities of those before him, taught discourses by the Tathāgata and his disciples — corresponding to the aggregates, sense bases, and elements; to dependent origination, nutriment, and the truths; to the foundations of mindfulness, right efforts, spiritual faculties, powers, enlightenment factors, and path factors; to mindfulness of breathing, the trainings, and the confirmations of liberation. It also includes discourses corresponding to the eight assemblies... All these teachings, arranged by topic and compiled together, are called the Saṃyukta Āgama. Those same teachings, presented in intermediate form, are called the Majjhima Āgama. Presented in greater length and detail, they are called the Dīrgha Āgama. Presented according to the principle of gradual numerical increase — one, two, three, and so on — they are called the Ekottara Āgama. These four were passed down from teacher to disciple and have come down to us today. For this reason they are called Āgamas, and this is what is known as the sūtra collection. (T30, p772c)

When the Blessed One taught, he gave discourses of varying length according to the differing capacities of his listeners. When Venerable Ānanda compiled the sūtras, he gathered the shorter passages into the Saṃyukta Āgama, those of intermediate length into the Majjhima Āgama, and the longer ones into the Dīrgha Āgama, while arranging those taught by numerical lists — one, two, three, and so forth — into the Ekottara Āgama. Though the passages differ in length, their inner meaning is identical: all take the Three Trainings as their core teaching.

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V. Conclusion

The sūtras in the Dīgha Āgama that present the [Three Trainings • Set Formula] include nine texts: the Ambaṭṭha Sūtra, the Soṇadaṇḍa Sūtra, the Kūṭadanta Sūtra, the Dhīra Sūtra, the Kāpaṭika Sūtra, the Tevijja Sūtra, the Sāmaññaphala Sūtra, the Poṭṭhapāda Sūtra, and the Lohicca Sūtra. The Theravāda Dīgha Nikāya adds three more — the Mahāli Sūtra, the Jāliya Sūtra, and the Subha Sūtra — bringing the total to twelve. This powerfully demonstrates that the Three Trainings form the core teaching of the Dīgha Āgama. By correlating the sūtras with the śāstras, we can see that the [Three Trainings • Set Formula] in the Ambaṭṭha Sūtra (N20) contains the complete essential meaning of ethics, samādhi, and wisdom, and encompasses the entire gradual path of Buddhist practice, with renunciants as its central figures. The [Three Trainings • Set Formula] passages appearing later in the Dīgha Āgama are presented in abbreviated form, yet their substance is identical. From this we can see that the core teaching of the Dīgha Āgama and the Dīgha Nikāya lies in the Three Trainings — not merely in "refuting non-Buddhist doctrines."

(Journal of Dharma Light Studies, 2003)