Professor Lin Chong'an: A Study on the Divisions of Teaching during the Buddha's Time and the Compilation of the Āgama Sutras

Selected Papers on Buddhist Studies

A Study on the Divisions of Teaching during the Buddha's Time and the Compilation of the Āgama Sutras

Lin Chong'an (2004)

Contents

1. Preface
2. The Buddha's Teachings in the Early Period
3. The Circulation of Verses and Sūtras in the Early Period
4. The Ninefold Teaching in the Middle Period
5. The Twelvefold Teaching in the Later Period
6. The Āgama Sutras at the First Council
7. The "Miscellaneous Collection" after the Second Council
8. Conclusion

1. Preface

After attaining Buddhahood, the World-Honored One first taught the Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta to the five bhikkhus, and then went on to convert people of widely differing stations in life: the sixty excellent ones, the two herding girls, the one thousand wanderers, King Bimbisāra, Śāriputra, Maudgalyāyana, and others. The disciples among them who had attained arhatship likewise set out to spread the Dharma throughout India. To make the teaching easier to transmit, they began to gather and arrange the Buddha's words. The whole process of compilation and circulation can be divided into three stages: the early, middle, and later periods. Drawing on the multiple traditions preserved in the Āgama Sutras, the extensive Vinayas, and the Mahāvibhāṣā, this article traces how the "divisions of teaching" took shape during the Buddha's lifetime, and how the Āgama Sutras were assembled after his parinirvāṇa. It argues that during his lifetime the gāthā, udāna, and sūtra (with appended geya) first circulated in the early period; the ninefold teaching took shape in the middle period; and the twelvefold teaching was differentiated in the later period. Only after all this did the compilation of the Sūtra and Vinaya take place at Rājagṛha in the year of the Buddha's passing. For ease of comparison, the names of the twelve divisions are listed below and distinguished by codes in 【】: 【1】 Sūtra (sūtra), 【2】 Geya (geya), 【3】 Vyākaraṇa (vyākaraṇa), 【4】 Gāthā (gāthā), 【5】 Udāna (udāna), 【A】 Nidāna (nidāna), 【B】 Avadāna (avadāna), 【6】 Itivṛttaka (itivṛttaka), 【7】 Jātaka (jātaka), 【8】 Vaipulya (vaipulya), 【9】 Adbhutadharma (adbhutadharma), 【C】 Upadeśa (upadeśa). If the three marked 【A】 Nidāna, 【B】 Avadāna, and 【C】 Upadeśa are set aside, what remains is the ninefold teaching.

2. The Buddha's Teachings in the Early Period

The Buddha's earliest teaching, given right after his awakening, is briefly set out below following the account in the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya Bhaiṣajyavastu (T24, p127b–136c):

(1) At Vārāṇasī, the World-Honored One first laid out the overarching framework of Dharma practice for the five ascetic companions who had left home to pursue the austere life: "The Middle Way, that is, the Noble Eightfold Path":

A renunciant must keep away from two kinds of wrong teachers. What are the two? The first is one who clings to the inferior, worldly ways of ordinary people and indulges in sensual pleasures; the second is one who afflicts his own body and commits all manner of faults—practices that are not those of the noble ones. A renunciant must avoid both of these wrong teachings. I have a Middle Way. Those who practice it will gain the pure eye and great wisdom, will reach perfect enlightenment, and will attain peaceful nirvāṇa. What is the Middle Way? It is the Noble Eightfold Path. What are the eight? Right View, Right Intention, Right Speech, Right Action, Right Livelihood, Right Effort, Right Mindfulness, and Right Concentration.

The World-Honored One then taught the Four Noble Truths, enabling Kauṇḍinya to attain the fruit of stream-entry:

This is the noble truth of suffering... This is the noble truth of the origin of suffering... This is the noble truth of the cessation of suffering... This is the noble truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering—of which I had not previously heard. Through properly directing the mind with diligent effort, the pure eye of wisdom, knowledge, and illumination arose within me... When the World-Honored One taught this Dharma, the Venerable Kauṇḍinya, in that dust-free, stain-free Dharma, attained the pure Dharma eye, and eighty thousand devas likewise attained the Dharma eye... Because the World-Honored One, at the Sages' Fall Place in the Deer Park at Vārāṇasī, set in motion the twelvefold wheel three times, this Dharma teaching and this place came to be called the "Setting in Motion of the Wheel" Sutta.

The World-Honored One then taught the Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path in greater depth, with the result that Kauṇḍinya became the first disciple to attain arhatship:

The World-Honored One again addressed the four: There are four noble truths. What are the four? The noble truth of suffering, the noble truth of origination, the noble truth of cessation, and the noble truth of the path... What is the noble truth of the path? It is the Noble Eightfold Path, which should be cultivated! When the World-Honored One taught this Four Noble Truths Dharma, Añña-Kauṇḍinya exhausted all his defilements and won liberation of mind; the four, in this teaching, were freed from every dust and stain and attained the pure eye.

The World-Honored One then taught the Five Aggregates in detail, so that the remaining four also attained the fruit of arhatship:

The World-Honored One again addressed the four: You should know that form is non-self. If form possessed a self, it would not give rise to the various ailments, and one would be able to make it thus and not otherwise. Therefore, know that because form is non-self, the various ailments arise, and one cannot make it thus or not thus. Feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness should likewise be understood in the same way... Therefore, know this! All forms—past, future, or present; internal or external; gross or subtle; inferior or superior; near or far—such forms are not the self, do not belong to the self, are not possessed by the self, and the self is not in form. Through complete and direct knowledge as it really is, one should see in this way. So too with feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness... At that time, when the World-Honored One taught this Dharma, those four, having heard it, obtained liberation of mind and attained the fruit of arhatship.

These teachings of the World-Honored One, in prose form, constitute 【1】 Sūtra, covering the Five Aggregates, the Four Noble Truths, and the Noble Eightfold Path.

(2) Thereafter, by the river at Vārāṇasī, the World-Honored One taught the layman Yaśas on "Giving, Morality, the Causes of Rebirth in the Heavens, the Dangers of the Five Sensual Pleasures, and the Four Noble Truths," enabling him to attain the fruit and to take the five precepts:

It is the regular practice of all Buddhas first to teach this Dharma: namely, giving, morality, and the causes of rebirth in the heavens. Then they speak of the dangers of the five sensual pleasures, praise the renunciant life and dwelling alone in mountain forests, urge the contemplation and observation that cut off all defilements, and expound the vast and subtle Dharma, opening and revealing it so that it can be understood. All who hear it, hearing this Dharma, rejoice with pure hearts and are free of doubt. The Buddha, having observed and known this, then further taught them the supramundane Dharma—the noble truths of suffering, origination, cessation, and the path—just as one washing cloth first removes the stains, and once clean, the dye takes easily. So too with Yaśas: first having heard the Buddha's teaching, his mind-vessel was pure, and he could then understand the Dharma of the Four Noble Truths. He attained the fruit of stream-entry, saw the Dharma, obtained the Dharma, thoroughly penetrated the Dharma, firmly established the Dharma, transcended every longing, crossed over all doubt, relying on no other; in the Teacher's instruction no one else could lead him, and in all the dharmas he attained fearlessness. Yaśas, having received this Dharma, was greatly delighted. He rose from his seat, adjusted his robes, prostrated with his head at the Buddha's feet, placed his right knee on the ground, joined his palms, and addressed the Buddha: "World-Honored One! I now enter this subtle Dharma and gain great benefit. From today until the end of my life, I take refuge in the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Saṅgha, and as a five-precept upāsaka, I will not kill, not steal, not engage in sexual misconduct, not speak falsely, and not drink intoxicants."

The World-Honored One then gave the same teaching to Yaśas's father, enabling him to attain the fruit of stream-entry, while Yaśas himself attained arhatship:

He led that householder to attain the fruit of stream-entry. His son Yaśas, still adorned with the various precious ornaments of his lay life, attained the fruit of arhatship. At that time, the World-Honored One gathered his spiritual power and spoke this verse:

"Tamed and tranquil, holding pure precepts, Constantly adorned with the wondrous Dharma; With a mind of harmlessness toward all beings— Such is the practice of the śramaṇa bhikṣu."

Here the World-Honored One's teaching is the prose 【1】 Sūtra, covering giving, morality, the causes of rebirth in the heavens, the dangers of the five sensual pleasures, and the Four Noble Truths, along with the conferral of the five precepts. His inspired verse is 【5】 Udāna (udāna).

(3) The World-Honored One next taught the four sons of householders—Pūrṇa, Vimala, Gavāṅgī, and Bhadraśikhā—enabling them to attain arhatship. Then in the city of Vārāṇasī, fifty men of noble families came to the Buddha, renounced household life within the excellent Dharma-Vinaya to become bhikṣus, and all attained the fruit of arhatship.

(4) Next, Māra sought to create obstacles:

At that time, Māra, having this thought, transformed himself into a māṇava and went to the Buddha. Standing before him, he spoke this verse:

"You have not attained liberation, yet you entertain the thought of liberation; You are in bondage, and you cannot liberate me."

The World-Honored One, knowing that Māra wished to disturb his mind, spoke this verse in reply:

"From the bondage of humans and gods, I have attained liberation; You who are guilty should now know—I have crushed you."

Māra, realizing, "The śramaṇa Gautama can read my mind," was filled with remorse and repentance, and vanished on the spot.

This exchange in verse is 【4】 Gāthā (gāthā).

(5) The World-Honored One then instructed the sixty bhikṣus to go forth, each on his own, to the four directions to propagate the Dharma:

The World-Honored One again addressed the bhikṣus: I have attained liberation from the bondage of humans and gods; you too have attained liberation. You should go to other regions to bring benefit, out of compassion for the world and for the happiness of humans and gods. You must not travel in pairs. I now go to the Uruvelā grove. The bhikṣus all respectfully followed the Buddha's instruction and departed.

(6) The World-Honored One then went to the campaka grove near Uruvelā, on the outskirts of Vārāṇasī, and converted the sixty excellent ones and the two daughters of the village headman (one named Harī, the other Harīmatī), who became the lay community of saints. He then went on to the forest by the Nerañjarā River and converted (a) Uruvelā-Kassapa with his five hundred followers, and (b) Nadī-Kassapa and Gayā-Kassapa, each with two hundred fifty disciples. They all renounced household life within the excellent Dharma-Vinaya and received full ordination, becoming bhikṣus, and gradually made their way to Mount Gayā. There, the World-Honored One taught the one thousand bhikṣus through the three spiritual powers:

(a) Psychic Power: The Tathāgata entered samādhi, and through the one-pointedness of his mind, suddenly vanished from his seat and reappeared in the east, rising into empty space, walking, standing, sitting, and lying down. He entered the fire-light samādhi, and from within his body emitted various lights—blue, yellow, red, white, and reddish. He displayed the dual phenomenon at once: from the lower part of his body fire blazed while clear water flowed upward; from the lower part water flowed while fire blazed upward. As in the east, so in the south, west, and north. After displaying these phenomena, he vanished from empty space and reappeared at his original seat. This is the World-Honored One's psychic power.

(b) Power of Teaching by Description: As for the bhikṣu, one should observe mind, mental activity, and consciousness, and skillfully investigate and examine them; one should not investigate and examine them unskillfully. This too is mental activity; this too is the bodily consciousness that is realized. This is the World-Honored One's power of teaching by description.

(c) Power of Instruction: The World-Honored One told the bhikṣus that all dharmas are entirely ablaze. What is ablaze? The eye is ablaze, forms are ablaze, eye-consciousness is ablaze, eye-contact is ablaze, and the feelings internally arising from eye-contact—whether painful, pleasant, or neither painful nor pleasant—are also ablaze. Ablaze with what fire? With the fire of greed, the fire of hatred, the fire of delusion. Birth, aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, distress, and suffering are likewise all ablaze—this is all suffering. As the eye is thus, so too are the ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.

Here, the teachings through psychic power and the power of teaching by description belong to the "Path Factors," while the content of the power of instruction is the "Six Sense Bases"—all of which fall under 【1】 Sūtra. Through these three spiritual powers, all one thousand bhikṣus attained the fruit of arhatship.

(7) The World-Honored One then went on to the kingdom of Magadha and gave King Bimbisāra and the assembly an extensive teaching on the profound meaning of "the Five Aggregates are Non-self" and "Dependent Origination":

The World-Honored One addressed the Magadhan lord Bimbisāra: "Form has arising and ceasing, great king. You should understand the causes and conditions of the arising and ceasing of form. So too with feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness..." Hearing the World-Honored One teach this Dharma, the brahmins and householders of Magadha had this thought: "If form is without self, and feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness are also without self, then what is the self?... If someone performs actions that should or should not be done, good and evil deeds with their karmic results—who would experience them, causing the abandonment of this aggregate and the taking up of another?" The World-Honored One, knowing their thought, addressed the bhikṣus: "...If someone, with respect to actions that should or should not be done and their karmic results, abandons this aggregate and takes up another, this is not said to be the self, but is rather causes and conditions: because this exists, that exists; because this arises, that arises—namely, ignorance conditions volitional formations, volitional formations condition consciousness, consciousness conditions name-and-form, name-and-form condition the six sense bases, the six sense bases condition contact, contact conditions feeling, feeling conditions craving, craving conditions grasping, grasping conditions existence, existence conditions birth, and birth conditions aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, distress, and suffering. Thus this great mass of suffering aggregates comes into being. And because this does not exist, that does not exist; because this ceases, that ceases—namely, with the cessation of ignorance, volitional formations cease; with the cessation of volitional formations, consciousness ceases; with the cessation of consciousness, name-and-form ceases; with the cessation of name-and-form, the six sense bases cease; with the cessation of the six sense bases, contact ceases; with the cessation of contact, feeling ceases; with the cessation of feeling, craving ceases; with the cessation of craving, grasping ceases; with the cessation of grasping, existence ceases; with the cessation of existence, birth ceases; with the cessation of birth, aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, distress, and suffering cease. Thus this great mass of suffering aggregates ceases. Bhikṣus! In this way all formations are suffering; nirvāṇa is happiness. Because of conditions, suffering arises; because of cessation, suffering ceases. Through this, the continuous round is cut off—this is the ending of suffering. What is nirvāṇa? Because of the ending of suffering, there is nirvāṇa, just as when fire is extinguished one finds coolness. Therefore I say that this verse can abandon the aggregates: because greed and suffering end, one attains perfect peace..." At that time, when the World-Honored One taught this Dharma, King Bimbisāra of Magadha, together with eighty thousand devas and countless hundreds of thousands of Magadhan brahmins and householders, all became free from dust and stain and attained the pure Dharma eye. (T24, p136c)

The World-Honored One's teaching here is the prose 【Sūtra】, covering the Five Aggregates and Dependent Origination. Because it explores the profound questions of non-self and karmic retribution, this teaching was later classified under the Vaipulya division.

Summary. At this point, the World-Honored One's modes and content of teaching are complete:

(1) Modes of teaching: The three spiritual powers—psychic power, power of teaching by description, and power of instruction—with the power of instruction as the principal one.

(2) Content: The Five Aggregates, the Six Sense Bases, Causes and Conditions (including the Four Noble Truths), the Path Factors (the Noble Eightfold Path); and the Five Precepts for laypeople.

(3) Form: The prose 【1】 Sūtra, and the verse forms 【5】 Udāna and 【4】 Gāthā.

(4) Results: Over one thousand arhats; among lay attainants were King Bimbisāra (of the Seniya clan) and others.

3. The Circulation of Verses and Sūtras in the Early Period

After the saintly disciples converted in the early period went forth to spread the Dharma throughout India, they began to circulate the Buddha's teachings. The first kind of texts they transmitted were the verse forms 【5】 Udāna and 【4】 Gāthā. The other kind was the prose form 【1】 Sūtra, sometimes with a 【2】 Geya appended at the end.

Evidence: The Bhaiṣajyavastu of the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya records that when the merchant Pūrṇa of the city of Supārikā went out to sea with a caravan of traders, the merchants were in the habit of reciting the verses and sūtras taught by the Buddha:

Those merchants chanted day and night — the Udāna Verses, the Verses of the Elders, the Sāraṇī Verses, the Verses of the Sage, the Collected Meanings, the Sūtras, and other such texts — in clear, beautiful voices. When Yuǎnmǎn heard them, he asked, "You sing beautifully." The merchants replied, "Sir, this isn't singing." Yuǎnmǎn asked, "What are these words, then?" The merchants answered, "They are words spoken by the Buddha." (T24, p11b)

The Alternate Translation of the Saṃyuktāgama records:

At that time, the Venerable Aniruddha was traveling with the Buddha and arrived at the palace of Hārītī, the Mother of Ghosts, in the country of Magadha. Aniruddha rose early in the middle watch of the night, sat upright, and chanted the Dhammapada, the Pārāyana, and the Verses of the Great Elders. He also recited aloud their meanings along with the Sūtras and other texts. (T2, p480c)

The Saṃyuktāgama records:

At that time the Venerable Aniruddha was wandering through the towns and villages of Magadha, and lodged at the residence of the Mother of Ghosts (Hārītī). Rising in the last watch of the night, he sat upright and chanted at length the Udāna, the Pārāyana, the Verses of the Seen Truth, the Verses Spoken by the Elders, the Verses Spoken by Bhikkhunīs, the Sāraṇī, the Collection of Meanings, the Verses of the Sage, and the Sūtras. (T2, p362c)

All of these sources reveal a consistent pattern: "verses first, then sūtras." The verses fall into two categories of classified teachings — Udāna (spontaneous utterances) and Gāthā (chanted verses) — and they follow a set order: Udāna first, then Gāthā:

• Udāna: Udāna Verses (also rendered Woduo Nan / Youtunuo), Dhammapada Verses.
• Gāthā: a) Verses Spoken by the Elders, Sāraṇī Verses (also called Shiluoni), Verses of the Sage, Collected Meanings (= Collection of Meanings), Pārāyana Verses (also called Bian'andao); b) Verses of the Seen Truth.

"Udāna" refers to verses the Buddha spontaneously composed in response to moments in his daily life; the Dhammapada consists of verses he improvised while teaching the Dharma. The Dhammapada is a subcategory of Udāna and was not distinguished as a separate category in the earliest period. The Mahāvibhāṣā states:

What is Udāna? It refers to passages in the sūtras where the Buddha speaks spontaneously, moved by joy or sorrow. An occasion of joy: once, seeing a wild elephant king, the Buddha spontaneously recited, "The elephant king dwells in the wilderness, free and untroubled in mind; the wise one dwells in the empty forest, wandering with a peaceful, tranquil heart." An occasion of sorrow: once, seeing an elderly couple, the Buddha spontaneously recited, "Those who did not practice the holy life in their youth have lost the treasure of the noble ones; now they are like two old cranes guarding a single dry pond." (T27, p660a)

These Udāna teachings circulated early on. The Saṃyuktāgama records the Buddha's spontaneous recitation of Udāna verses:

Once the Buddha was staying at Jīvaka's mango grove in Vaiśālī. When the World-Honored One had finished reciting all the Udāna Verses, he said to the Venerable Ānanda: "The eye is impermanent, suffering, subject to change, of a nature that shifts. Form, eye-consciousness, eye-contact, and feelings born of eye-contact — whether pleasant, unpleasant, or neither — are also impermanent, suffering, subject to change, of a nature that shifts. The ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind are the same." (T2, p52b)

Then the World-Honored One rose from meditation in the late afternoon, left the hall, and took a seat in the shade before the assembly. He uttered these Udāna Verses: "The Dharma has no self, nor anything that belongs to a self. If the self does not come to be, how can what belongs to it arise? When a bhikkhu is liberated from this, the lower fetters are severed." … (T2, p16c)

"Gāthā" refers to the general verse-form teachings the Buddha used, composed into structured lines — sometimes two, three, four, five, or six lines. The Yogācārabhūmi states:

What is Gāthā? It is not direct prose but verse composed in structured lines — two, three, four, five, six, or more. This is called Gāthā. (T30, p418c)

These Gāthā verses spread widely across India from an early period, so disciples from different regions would often ask the Buddha or his senior disciples to explain their meaning. The Saṃyuktāgama mentions the Pārāyana — a Gāthā text — in several passages:

"Śāriputra, I have another teaching on this, given in response to the Pārāyana · Puṇṇaka's Question: 'The world has many distinctions; where does one remain unmoved? In calm, free from defilement, uprooted, without longing — having crossed the sea of the three realms, no longer subject to aging and death.'" (T2, p255c)

"Ānanda, I have another teaching on this, given in response to the Pārāyana · Uttara's Question: 'Cut off thoughts of desire, leave sorrow and suffering behind; wake from sloth, destroy restlessness and regret; [let go of greed] and purify hatred; observe the Dharma directly before you. I declare that wisdom liberates, destroying the darkness of ignorance.'" (T2, p256a)

The World-Honored One said to the Venerable Śāriputra: "As I stated in the Pārāyana · Ajita's Question: 'One who knows the categories of dharmas, one who studies various teachings — possessing proper conduct and practice — explain these to me in detail.'" (T2, p95b)

At that time a number of bhikkhus had gathered in the hall and were discussing this: "Venerable ones! As the World-Honored One said in the Pārāyana · Tiṣya's Question: 'One who knows the two extremes has no attachment to what lies between — such a one is called a great person, indifferent to the five sensual pleasures, free from the fetters of defilement, beyond the sorrow of stitching [the cycle of rebirth].' Venerable ones! What does this mean? What are the extremes? What are the two extremes? What is the middle? What is stitching? What is the thought?" (T2, p310b)

The Saṃyuktāgama also contains detailed analyses of the Collection of Meanings, another Gāthā text, such as the "Verse in Response to Māgandiya's Question":

At that time the elder of Hālī village went to the Venerable Mahākaccāyana, bowed at his feet, sat to one side, and said: "As the World-Honored One said in the Collection of Meanings · Verse in Response to Māgandiya's Question: 'Cut off all streams, block their sources too; villages breed entanglement — the sage does not praise them. For the five sensual pleasures, one never returns to fill [the void]; worldly quarrels and disputes — one puts an end to them forever.' Venerable Mahākaccāyana, what is the meaning of this verse? …" (T2, p144b)

The Verses of the Great Elders (also known as Verses of the Elders / Verses Spoken by the Elders) mentioned among the Gāthā texts above was also compiled early on, though later additions were made. The Verses Spoken by Bhikkhunīs and the Verses of the Seen Truth were likely compiled somewhat later. The Verses of the Seen Truth are connected with the Buddha's teaching of the Mother of Ghosts (a yakṣa), which is why Aniruddha chanted them at the residence of the Mother of Ghosts (Hārītī). The Saṃyuktāgama records:

Once the Buddha was traveling through Magadha with a large assembly and lodged at the residence of the Mother of Ghosts Puṇṇavasī. At that time the World-Honored One taught the bhikkhus a discourse on the Four Noble Truths: the noble truth of suffering, the noble truth of the origin of suffering, the noble truth of the cessation of suffering, and the noble truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering. Now the Mother of Ghosts' son, Puṇṇaka, and her daughter, the young yakṣa girl Uttara, were crying in the night. So the Mother of Ghosts spoke these verses to calm her children: "Puṇṇaka, don't cry! Uttara, don't cry! Let me hear the Tathāgata's Dharma. No parent can free a child from suffering; but hearing the Tathāgata's Dharma, one is freed. Worldly people, driven by desire, are crushed by suffering; the Tathāgata teaches the Dharma to break the cycle of birth and death. I want to hear the Dharma now — be quiet!" Then Puṇṇaka and Uttara accepted their mother's words, fell silent, and listened. They said, "Wonderful! We too want to hear the Dharma. This Awakened One, the World-Honored One, on Magadha's holy mountain, teaches all beings the way to end suffering: suffering, its cause, its cessation, and the path. Through these Four Noble Truths, one proceeds safely to nirvāṇa. Mother, listen well to the World-Honored One's Dharma." Then the Mother of Ghosts spoke these verses: "How marvelous, wise children, to follow my heart so well! Puṇṇaka, you have praised the Buddha, our teacher, beautifully! Puṇṇaka, and you too, Uttara — rejoice! For I have seen the noble truth." (T2, p362c)

Because the last line of this Gāthā is "I have seen the noble truth," the Gāthā connected with the teaching of yakṣas came to be known generally as the Verses of the Seen Truth.

As for the content of the [1] Sūtras taught in the Buddha's early period — what did they contain? Based on the Buddha's early teaching content and the surviving Āgama sūtras, we can infer that the early Sūtras were primarily prose collections organized around three topics: the aggregates (skandha), the sense bases (āyatana), and dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda). The Saṃyuktāgama records that Rāhula wanted to retreat to a quiet place and meditate diligently to attain arhatship, but the Buddha knew his liberating wisdom was not yet ripe, so he told him:

"You should teach others about the five aggregates of clinging! … You should teach others about the six sense bases! … You should teach others about the Nidāna teachings! … Then, taking up these teachings, go alone to a quiet place and meditate diligently, observing their meaning." (T2, p51a)

From this we can see the Buddha's disciples followed a sequence: first listening to and reflecting on the "five aggregates of clinging," the "six sense bases," and the "Nidāna teachings" (dependent origination), and only then entering solitary practice — "going alone to a quiet place, meditating diligently." So the content of the early Sūtras, in order, comprised three collections: aggregates, sense bases, and dependent origination — hereafter called the "Aggregates Collection," "Sense Bases Collection," and "Dependent Origination Collection." At the end of a Sūtra, a [2] geya (matching verse) was sometimes appended, restating the teaching in verse form for easier memorization — essentially a concluding recap of the sūtra's content. The Mahāvibhāṣā states:

What is a Sūtra? It refers to sūtras containing prose passages, such as "all conditioned things are impermanent, all dharmas are without self, nirvāṇa is peaceful" and so forth.

Question: What does "Sūtra" mean? Answer: Briefly, there are two senses. The first is compilation: the Buddha's words gather and hold meaning, the way a garland holds flowers strung on a thread. Just as a garland-maker threads flowers into a crown and places it on someone's head, so it will not come apart for a long time — in the same way, the Buddha's teachings, compiled into categories, are placed upon the hearts of sentient beings and are not easily forgotten. The second is determination: the Buddha's words cut through and determine what is correct, like a carpenter's chalk line. Just as a skilled craftsman uses a chalk line to mark timber — easily seeing what is straight and what is crooked, discarding the warped and keeping the true — so the Buddha's teachings make it easy to distinguish right from wrong, casting off what is harmful and preserving what is good.

What are matching verses (geya)? They are verses composed after the prose passages of a Sūtra have been taught, gathering the teaching into verse form to be chanted — such as the "compiled texts" and "compiled chapters." For example, when the World-Honored One told the assembly of bhikkhus: "I say that knowledge and vision can put an end to all outflows; without knowledge and vision, no one can put an end to outflows — that is impossible." Having spoken this in prose, he then composed it into verse and chanted: "With knowledge and vision, outflows cease; without them, they cannot. Understanding the arising and passing of the aggregates, the mind is freed from defilement." (T27, p659c)

In summary, based on the sources above, we can see that the "classified teachings" circulating in the Buddha's early period included: [1] Sūtras: Aggregates Collection, Sense Bases Collection, and Dependent Origination Collection. [2] Matching Verses (geya): appended to the end of Sūtras. [4] Gāthā: Verses Spoken by the Elders, Sāraṇī Verses, Verses of the Sage, Collection of Meanings, and Pārāyana Verses. [5] Udāna: Udāna Verses and Dhammapada Verses. When the Buddha's disciples transmitted these teachings outward during this period, the order was "verses first, then sūtras," and within the verses, the order was "Udāna first, then Gāthā."

---

4. The Ninefold Classification of Teachings in the Buddha's Middle Period

In the middle period of his teaching, the Buddha organized his teachings into nine categories. This can be seen in a conversation with his disciple Śāriputra about the reasons for establishing the precepts. The Mahāsaṃghika Vinaya records:

At that time the Buddha said to Śāriputra: "There are Tathāgatas who do not extensively teach their disciples the Sūtras, Geya, Vyākaraṇa, Gāthā, Udāna, Itivṛttaka, Jātaka, Vaipulya, and Adbhutadharma sūtras. Śāriputra, those Tathāgatas do not lay down precepts for their śrāvakas; they do not establish the Prātimokṣa. And so, after such a Tathāgata passes into parinirvāṇa, the Dharma does not last long. Śāriputra, it is like a garland-maker or his apprentice who places various colored flowers on a table without threading them together — when the wind blows from all four directions, they scatter. Why? Because they are not strung on a thread. … Śāriputra, because the Tathāgata extensively teaches the nine categories of Dharma to his disciples, lays down precepts for the śrāvakas, and establishes the Prātimokṣa, the teaching endures long after the Tathāgata's parinirvāṇa. Śāriputra, it is like a garland-maker or his apprentice who threads various colored flowers together — when the wind blows from all four directions, they do not scatter. Why? Because they are strung on a thread." (T22, p227b)

The nine categories mentioned here match the Ninefold Classification described in the prefaces to the Pali Samantapāsādikā and the Dīghanikāya Aṭṭhakathā: [1] Sūtra (修多罗), [2] Geya / matching verse (应颂, 祇夜), [3] Vyākaraṇa / prophetic explanation (记说, 授记、和伽罗那), [4] Gāthā (讽诵, 伽他＝伽陀), [5] Udāna / spontaneous utterance (自说, 忧陀那), [6] Itivṛttaka / past accounts (本事, 如是语、伊帝日多伽), [7] Jātaka / birth stories (本生, 阇陀加), [8] Vaipulya / expanded teachings (方广, 毗佛略), [9] Adbhutadharma / marvelous phenomena (希法, 未曾有法、阿浮陀达磨). According to fascicle 32 of the Mahāsaṃghika Vinaya, the transmission lineage of this Vinaya runs: 1. Upāli, 2. Daśapāla, 3. Śuddhipāla, 4. Jita, 5. Indrapāla, 6. Dharmagiri — placing it in the same Upāli lineage as the Theravāda Pali Vinaya. This lineage preserved the "Ninefold Classification of Teachings."

During the Buddha's middle period, the number of circulating sūtras and verses steadily grew, calling for further compilation:

First, within [1] Sūtras, a separate category corresponding to the path factors was drawn out. This can be inferred from variant traditions preserved in the later-compiled Saṃyuktāgama. The Vātsīputrīya and Mahāsāṃghika schools, in their shared Mahāsaṃghika Vinaya, state:

"Those with mixed topics are compiled into the Saṃyuktāgama: for example, those related to the faculties, powers, awakening factors, and path factors — such items are called 'mixed' (saṃyukta)." (T22, p491c)

This tells us there was a collection corresponding to the five faculties, five powers, seven awakening factors, and eightfold noble path (hereafter called the "Path Collection"). So during the middle period, the Sūtra category comprised two types: the "Aggregates Collection, Sense Bases Collection, Dependent Origination Collection," and the "Path Collection." Fascicle 7 of the Bhaiṣajyavastu confirms that this "Path Collection" of sūtras did indeed exist:

At that time, the World-Honored One arose from samādhi, sat down before the assembly of monks, and addressed them: "If wanderers of other paths come and ask you, 'What practice did the ascetic Gautama undertake to enter the samādhi of quietude for two months?' you should reply: 'He entered the breath-counting samādhi.' Why? During those two months, I remained seated in meditation, practicing the contemplation of breath-counting (ānāpāna-smṛti). As I practiced this contemplation, my mind was entirely free from distraction regarding the in-breath, knowing it as it truly is; it was also entirely free from distraction regarding the out-breath, knowing it as it truly is. I fully comprehended the long and short breaths, their arising and ceasing, and all the out-breaths throughout the entire body… O monks! I shall now properly explain to you the practices of the noble ones, the practices of the devas, of Brahmā, of those beyond training (aśaikṣa), of those still in training (śaikṣa), and the practices of the Tathāgata. For those still in training, what is yet to be attained will be attained, what is yet to be realized will be realized, what is yet to be seen directly will be seen directly. For those beyond training, what has been directly seen will increase. Those in training will dwell in happiness, having seen the Dharma." This is also expounded in the collected sūtras of the Mārga-varga (Path Factors). (T24, p32c)

Here, the Bhaiṣajyavastu (Chapter on Medicine) quotes the Ānāpāna-saṃyukta Sūtra and notes that it belongs to the collected sūtras of the Mārga-varga.

Second, within the 【4】 Gāthā (Chanted Verses), verses corresponding to the eight assemblies were expanded and compiled to form the Assembly-Corresponding Verses (containing the Seeing the True Dharma). We can also infer this backward from the legends of the later compilation of the Saṃyuktāgama. The Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya Kṣudraka Vastu states:

Whatever sūtras are associated with gāthās, these are called the Saṃyuktāgama. (T24, p407b)

The Five-Part Vinaya (Pañcavargika-vinaya) of the Mahīśāsaka school also says:

These are miscellaneous teachings, spoken for monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen, celestial princes, and celestial maidens. They are now compiled into one collection, called the Saṃyuktāgama. (T22, p191a)

The Four-Part Vinaya (Dharmaguptaka Vinaya) likewise states:

The miscellaneous teachings regarding monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen, devas, Śakra, Māra, and Brahmā are compiled together as the Saṃyuktāgama. (T22, p968b)

These three clues indicate that some compilations took the form of gāthās (chanted verses), while others were organized around content corresponding to the eight assemblies (monks, nuns, laymen, laywomen, devas, Śakra, Māra, and Brahmā). Both approaches refer to the compilation of the Assembly-Corresponding Verses — the form being gāthā and the content being the eight assemblies. So the compilation of gāthās during this period, in addition to the pre-existing a. Verses Spoken by Senior Monks, Śaila Gāthā, Muni Gāthā, Arthavarga, and Pārāyaṇa, also included the newly compiled b. Assembly-Corresponding Verses (containing Seeing the True Dharma). The Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra says:

What are gāthās? They are the chanted verses that conclude the teachings in various sūtras, such as the Rhinoceros Horn Sūtra (Khaggavisāṇa). As a gāthā says: "By associating with loved ones and enemies, greed and anger arise; therefore, the wise avoid both, wandering alone like a rhinoceros horn." (T27, p660a)

The Rhinoceros Horn Sūtra mentioned here is a chanted verse compiled in the middle period. Seeing the True Dharma consists of verses related to the Buddha's early teachings to the yakṣas (and the mother of the spirit Pūṇabhadda); during this period, it was incorporated into b. the Assembly-Corresponding Verses.

Third, a large number of prose-format Sūtras were further categorized by nature into five additional divisions: 【3】 Vyākaraṇa (Predictions), 【6】 Itivuttaka (Thus-Said), 【7】 Jātaka (Birth Stories), 【8】 Vaipulya (Extensive Teachings), and 【9】 Adbhuta-dharma (Wondrous Dharma). These are explained below.

【3】 Vyākaraṇa (Predictions): The Vyākaraṇa compiled in the middle period consists of selected short sūtras of questions and answers — the Buddha asking with disciples answering, disciples asking with the Buddha answering, or disciples asking with disciples answering. Later, it also came to include the four types of questions and answers, as well as responses about where one will be reborn after death (predictions). The Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra says:

What is Vyākaraṇa? It refers to various sūtras where disciples ask and the Tathāgata answers (predicts), or the Tathāgata asks and disciples answer, or disciples ask and disciples answer. The questions and answers regarding the instruction of devas and others are the same. It also includes sūtras with the four types of questions and answers, as well as predictions regarding realized states or future realms of rebirth. (T27, p659c)

【6】 Itivuttaka (Thus-Said): The Itivuttaka compiled in the middle period is the incremental-format Itivuttaka, similar to the Ben Shi Jing translated by Xuanzang. It doesn't explicitly state the location or the specific circumstances of the teaching, and it appends a 【2】 Geya (Corresponding Verse) at the end of the sūtra. The Abhidharma Nyāyānusāra Śāstra says:

The term Itivuttaka refers to teachings handed down from the past without specifying the speaker, the location, or the specific event of the discourse. (T27, p660a)

【7】 Jātaka (Birth Stories): The Jātaka compiled in the middle period contains stories of the Buddha's past lives — as a bear, a deer, and so on. The Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra says:

What are Jātakas? They are sūtras that recount events from past lives, such as the various Jātaka Sūtras about bears and deer, like the five hundred Jātaka tales told by the Buddha because of Devadatta. (T27, p660a)

【8】 Vaipulya (Extensive Teachings): These are sūtras where the Buddha extensively expounds various profound Dharma teachings, such as the Five-Three Sūtra, Brahma-net Sūtra (= Brahma-jāla Sūtra), Māyā-net Sūtra, Five-Aggregates Sūtra (= Elephant-Footprint Simile Sūtra), Six-Bases Sūtra (= Sūtra of Distinct Exposition of the Six Bases), and Great Causation Sūtra (= Sūtra of Great Causal Conditions). During the middle period of the Buddha's teachings, the Vaipulya of the nine-fold division also included "Upadeśa" (Discussions) among disciples exploring profound Dharma meanings. The Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra says:

What is Vaipulya? It refers to sūtras that extensively explain various profound Dharma meanings, such as the Five-Three Sūtra, Brahma-net, Māyā-net, Five-Aggregates, Six-Bases, and Great Causation. (T27, p660a)

The Vaipulya Sūtras were also referred to as Great Sūtras at that time. The Mūlasarvāstivāda Bhikṣuṇī Vinaya states:

If one is about to recite or is reciting the Great Sūtras, they refer to the Lesser Emptiness Sūtra, Great Emptiness Sūtra, Incremental Five and Three Sūtra, Māyā-net Sūtra, King Bimbisāra Welcoming the Buddha Sūtra, and Victory Banner Sūtra. (T23, p925c)

The Lesser Emptiness Sūtra, Great Emptiness Sūtra, Incremental Five and Three Sūtra (= Five-Three Sūtra), and King Bimbisāra Welcoming the Buddha Sūtra (= King Śreṇya Welcoming the Buddha Sūtra) mentioned here are all texts with broad scope and profound meaning.

【9】 Adbhuta-dharma (Wondrous Dharma): These are sūtras that praise the extraordinary and wondrous deeds of the Three Jewels (the Buddha, Dharma, and Saṅgha). Examples include the Rejoicing Sūtra, Unprecedented Dharma Sūtra, Attendant Sūtra, Bakkula Sūtra, Asura Sūtra, Earth-Quaking Sūtra, and Layman Ugga Sūtra. The Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra says:

What is Adbhuta-dharma? It refers to sūtras that speak of the extraordinary and wondrous events regarding the Three Jewels. Some masters say: It refers to disciples praising the rare and wondrous merits of the World-Honored One, such as Śāriputra praising the Buddha's unsurpassed merits, or Venerable Ānanda praising the Buddha's extremely wondrous Dharma. (T27, p660a)

Summary: From the above citations, we can see that the teachings circulating in the middle period of the Buddha's life constituted a complete nine-fold division of teachings, namely: 【1】 Sūtra (Prose Discourses): Aggregates section, Bases section, Causation section, and Path section. 【2】 Geya (Corresponding Verses): Appended to the end of prose sūtras. 【3】 Vyākaraṇa (Predictions): Predictions by the Tathāgata, and predictions by disciples. 【4】 Gāthā (Chanted Verses): a. Verses Spoken by Senior Monks, Śaila Gāthā, Muni Gāthā, Arthavarga, Pārāyaṇa; b. Assembly-Corresponding Verses (containing Seeing the True Dharma). 【5】 Udāna (Inspired Utterances): Udāna, Dhammapada Verses. 【6】 Itivuttaka (Thus-Said): Incremental Itivuttaka (= Ben Shi Jing). 【7】 Jātaka (Birth Stories): Various birth stories such as bears and deer. 【8】 Vaipulya (Extensive Teachings): Extensive exposition of various profound Dharma meanings (emptiness and dependent origination); this period included discussions (Upadeśa). 【9】 Adbhuta-dharma (Wondrous Dharma): Praising the extraordinary and wondrous deeds of the Three Jewels.

V. The Twelve-fold Division of Teachings in the Late Period of the Buddha

In the late period of his teaching ministry (the final twenty-five years, with Ānanda as his attendant), the Buddha organized the content of his teachings into a twelve-fold division. This is evident from a dispute over scholarly knowledge between Ānanda's disciples and Maudgalyāyana's disciples. The Saṃyuktāgama records:

Mahākāśyapa said to the Buddha: "World-Honored One! I saw two monks. One was named Paṇḍita, a disciple of Ānanda; the other was named Abhiñja, a disciple of Mahāmaudgalyāyana. The two of them were arguing over scholarly knowledge, each saying: 'Come! Let us debate. Who knows more? Who knows better?'" … The Buddha told the two monks: "You uphold the teachings I have spoken — the Sūtra, Geya, Vyākaraṇa, Gāthā, Udāna, Nidāna, Avadāna, Itivuttaka, Jātaka, Vaipulya, Adbhuta-dharma, and Upadeśa — yet you argue with each other, saying: 'Come! Let us debate and see who knows more and who is better?'" (T2, p300b)

Here the complete twelve-fold division is listed: 【1】 Sūtra (Prose Discourses) 【2】 Geya (Corresponding Verses) 【3】 Vyākaraṇa (Predictions) 【4】 Gāthā (Chanted Verses) 【5】 Udāna (Inspired Utterances) 【A】 Nidāna (Circumstantial Accounts) 【B】 Avadāna (Parables) 【6】 Itivuttaka (Thus-Said) 【7】 Jātaka (Birth Stories) 【8】 Vaipulya (Extensive Teachings) 【9】 Adbhuta-dharma (Wondrous Dharma) 【C】 Upadeśa (Discussions).

The Northern translated Saṃyuktāgama and Madhyamāgama belong to the Sarvāstivāda lineage, whose transmission goes: 1. Mahākāśyapa, Ānanda; 2. Anonymous; 3. Anonymous; 4. Anonymous; 5. Madhyāntika and Śāṇakavāsī. In the Saṃyuktāgama and Madhyamāgama, the division of teachings memorized and upheld by Ānanda is the "twelve-fold division." These twelve divisions add three categories to the nine-fold division: 【A】 Nidāna, 【B】 Avadāna, and 【C】 Upadeśa, explored below.

【A】 Nidāna involves compiling the circumstances surrounding various sūtras and the establishment of monastic rules (prātimokṣa), clearly accounting for the cause and effect of events. The Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra says:

What is Nidāna? It refers to sūtras where the Buddha speaks upon encountering specific circumstances, such as the various accounts related to the Arthavarga. As stated in the Vinaya: Because Sudarśanaputra and others committed the first transgression, the World-Honored One gathered the monks and established the monastic rules. (T27, p660a)

【B】 Avadāna (Parables) consists of lengthy parables told by the Buddha, such as the Great Avadāna (= Mahāvastu Sūtra), Long Avadāna (= Dirghāyu Sūtra), as well as the "Śroṇa-koṭiviṃśa Avadāna" and the "Koṭiviṃśa Avadāna" (compiled into the Vinaya at a later period). The Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra says:

What is an Avadāna? It refers to various and numerous parables spoken in the sūtras, such as the Long Avadāna and Great Avadāna, as explained in the Mahāparinirvāṇa by the custodians of the Vinaya. (T27, p660a)

【C】 Upadeśa (Discussions) consists of sūtras where the Buddha makes definitive judgments regarding "unexpressed sayings" (referring to incorrect/unspoken sayings, T24, p390a) and "great sayings," as well as sūtras where disciples explore profound Dharma meanings among themselves. Examples include the Dhammadinnā Bhikṣuṇī Sūtra and the Mahākoṭṭhita Sūtra. The Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra says:

What is Upadeśa? It refers to teachings in various sūtras that make definitive judgments on unexpressed and great sayings. It also refers to instances where the Buddha briefly expounded a sūtra and then entered a quiet room to meditate for a long time. The great śrāvakas would then gather in one place and use various different phrases and meanings to explain the Buddha's teachings. (T27, p660a)

Furthermore, sūtras such as the Tapodā Devatā Sūtra, the Sakka Devānaṃ Inda Sūtra, and the Ānanda Sūtra represent extensive elaborations by the Buddha's great disciples on the Bhadra-caru Gāthā (Verses of Bhadra).

As for the 【6】 Itivuttaka in the twelve-fold division of the late period, in addition to the pre-existing Incremental Itivuttaka (= Ben Shi Jing), it now encompassed "lengthy Itivuttakas" regarding great kings of the past and past Buddhas — events seen and heard in the distant past. Examples include the accounts of King Sudarśana, Mahādeva the Cakravartin, and the Mahāvastu Sūtra related to Buddha Vipaśyin. The Mahāvibhāṣā Śāstra states:

What is Itivuttaka? It refers to sūtras that recount events seen and heard in the past, such as saying: In the past, there was a great royal capital named Kusuma; the king was named Sudarśana. In the past, there was a Buddha named Vipaśyin, who taught such Dharma to his disciples. In the past, there were Buddhas named Śikhin, Viśvabhū, Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, and Kāśyapa, who taught such Dharma to their disciples. And so on. (T27, p660a)

Summary: From the above citations, we can see that the teachings circulating in the late period of the Buddha's life were organized into the twelve-fold division, namely: 【1】 Sūtra: Aggregates section, Bases section, Causation section, and Path section. 【2】 Geya: Appended to the end of prose sūtras. 【3】 Vyākaraṇa: Predictions by the Tathāgata, and predictions by disciples. 【4】 Gāthā: a. Verses Spoken by Senior Monks, Śaila Gāthā, Muni Gāthā, Arthavarga, Pārāyaṇa, Verses Spoken by Nuns; b. Assembly-Corresponding Verses (containing Seeing the True Dharma). 【5】 Udāna: Udāna, Dhammapada Verses. 【A】 Nidāna: Circumstances of various sūtras and the establishment of monastic rules. 【B】 Avadāna: Lengthy parables found in the Sūtras and the Vinaya. 【6】 Itivuttaka: a. Incremental Itivuttaka (= Ben Shi Jing); b. Lengthy Itivuttakas. 【7】 Jātaka: Birth stories such as bears and deer. 【8】 Vaipulya: Extensive exposition of profound Dharma meanings (emptiness and dependent origination). 【9】 Adbhuta-dharma: Praising the extraordinary and wondrous deeds of the Three Jewels. 【C】 Upadeśa: Discourses on profound Dharma meanings among disciples. However, because the many sūtras transmitted by the Buddha sometimes overlapped across Nidāna, Avadāna, Itivuttaka, and Jātaka, categorizing them posed difficulties. So during the Council at Rājagṛha, a new classification was adopted using the Four Āgamas.

VI. The Āgamas during the First Council

In the year of the Buddha's parinirvāṇa, Mahākāśyapa presided over the council at Rājagṛha (the First Council). Ānanda compiled the Sūtra Piṭaka, and Upāli compiled the Vinaya Piṭaka, re-editing the pre-existing nine-fold or twelve-fold divisions. According to the tradition found in the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra (Section on the Compendium of Meanings), the content of the First Council at Rājagṛha comprised the Four Āgamas:

事契经者，谓四阿笈摩：一者、杂阿笈摩，二者、中阿笈摩，三者、长阿笈摩，四者、增一阿笈摩。杂阿笈摩者，谓于是中，世尊观待彼彼所化，宣说如来及诸弟子所说相应；蕴、界、处相应；缘起、食、谛相应；念住、正断、神足、根、力、觉支、道支、入出息念、学、证净等相应；又依八众，说众相应。后结集者，为令圣教久住，结嗢柁南颂，随其所应，次第安布。【注：此段藏文是：杂阿笈摩者，谓世尊观待彼彼所化而宣说，后结集者，为令圣教久住，结嗢柁南颂，随其所应，次第安布，配于教说，于是中：蕴、处及缘起相应，如是食、谛、界及受相应，诸声闻及如来所说相应，念住、正断、神足、根、力、觉支、道支、入出息念、学、证净等相应，及依八众之众相应。】当知如是一切相应，略由三相。何等为三？一是能说，二是所说，三是所为说。若如来、若如来弟子，是「能说」，如弟子所说、佛所说分。若所了知、若能了知，是「所说」，如五取蕴、六处、因缘相应分，及道品分。若诸苾刍、天魔等众，是「所为说」，如结集品【藏文是：正说品】。如是一切，粗略标举能说、所说及所为说，即彼一切事相应教，间厕鸠集，是故说名「杂阿笈摩」。即彼相应教，复以余相处中而说，是故说名「中阿笈摩」。即彼相应教，更以余相广长而说，是故说名「长阿笈摩」。即彼相应教，更以一、二、三等渐增分数道理而说，是故说名「增一阿笈摩」。如是四种，师弟展转传来于今，由此道理，是故说名「阿笈摩」，是名「事契经」。(T30, p772c)

---

On *Sūtras of Matter* there are four Āgamas: first, the Saṃyuktāgama; second, the Madhyamāgama; third, the Dīrghāgama; fourth, the Ekottarāgama. The Saṃyuktāgama consists of discourses in which the World-Honored One, adapting to the various beings to be tamed, taught sūtras corresponding to the words of the Thus Come One and His disciples; to the aggregates, elements, and sense bases; to dependent origination, nutriment, and the truths; to the foundations of mindfulness, right exertions, bases of spiritual power, faculties, powers, factors of enlightenment, factors of the path, mindfulness of in-and-out breathing, training, and purified attainment; and to the eight assemblies. Later compilers, wishing the sacred teaching to endure, composed udāna verses and arranged them in sequence as appropriate. 【Note: The Tibetan passage reads: The Saṃyuktāgama consists of teachings the World-Honored One delivered in accordance with those to be tamed. Later compilers, wishing the sacred teaching to endure, composed udāna verses and arranged them in sequence as appropriate, allotting them to the teachings. Among these: sūtras corresponding to the aggregates, sense bases, and dependent origination; likewise to nutriment, the truths, the elements, and feelings; sūtras corresponding to the words of the śrāvakas and the Thus Come One; sūtras corresponding to the foundations of mindfulness, right exertions, bases of spiritual power, faculties, powers, factors of enlightenment, factors of the path, mindfulness of in-and-out breathing, training, and purified attainment; and sūtras corresponding to the eight assemblies.】 All these "correspondences" are subsumed under three aspects. What are the three? First, the speaker; second, what is spoken; third, those for whom it is spoken. If it is the Thus Come One or a disciple of the Thus Come One, that is the "speaker"—as in the sections of the disciples' words and the Buddha's words. If it is what is to be known or what can be known, that is "what is spoken"—as in the five appropriated aggregates, the six sense bases, the section on causes and conditions, and the section on the path factors. If it is an assembly of bhikṣus, gods, māras, and the like, that is "those for whom it is spoken"—as in the compilation chapter 【the Tibetan reads: the chapter of correct teaching】. When the speaker, what is spoken, and those for whom it is spoken have been summarily indicated, and all such correspondences on matters are gathered together in mixed fashion, the collection is therefore called the *Saṃyuktāgama* (Miscellaneous Collection). Those same correspondences, set forth at moderate length in a further manner, are called the *Madhyamāgama* (Middle Collection); set forth at greater length, the *Dīrghāgama* (Long Collection); set forth according to the principle of progressively increasing numerical categories—one, then two, then three, and so on—the *Ekottarāgama* (Numerically Increasing Collection). These four collections, handed down from teacher to disciple to the present day, are for this reason called *Āgama*. This is what is meant by "sūtras of matter (*saṃyuktāgamādīn dharmaparyāyaḥ*)." (T30, p772c)

This passage indicates that the editing of the *Saṃyuktāgama* followed this order: (1) the aggregate correspondences; (2) the sense-base correspondences; (3) the correspondences to dependent origination, nutriment, the truths, the elements, and feelings, together with (a) the words of śrāvaka disciples and (b) the words of the Thus Come One; (4) the correspondences to the foundations of mindfulness, right exertions, bases of spiritual power, faculties, powers, factors of enlightenment, factors of the path, mindfulness of in-and-out breathing, training, and purified attainment, along with (c) the assembly correspondences according to the eight assemblies. Taken together, these form: (1) the Aggregate Recitation (*Skandhasaṃyukta*); (2) the Sense-Base Recitation (*Āyatana-saṃyukta*); (3) the Recitation of Dependent Origination (*Pratītyasamutpāda-saṃyukta*); (a) the Recitation of the Disciples' Words (*Śrāvakabhāṣita-saṃyukta*); (b) the Recitation of the Thus Come One's Words (*Tathāgatabhāṣita-saṃyukta*); (4) the Path Recitation (*Mārga-saṃyukta*); (c) the Recitation of the Eight Assemblies (*Aṣṭaparṣad-saṃyukta*). These are the order and contents of the *Saṃyuktāgama* sūtras at the time of the first compilation. Among them, (1), (2), (3), and (4) make up "what is spoken"; (a) and (b) make up "the speaker"; (c) makes up "those for whom it is spoken." Although the Āgama sūtras vary in length, their content is the same: the *Madhyamāgama* and *Dīrghāgama* were each compiled simply on the basis of medium and long length, respectively; the *Ekottarāgama* was compiled according to the progressive enumeration of dharmas. The *Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra* further states:

"The Buddha's speech is encompassed by nine topics. What are the nine? (1) the topic of beings; (2) the topic of enjoyment; (3) the topic of arising; (4) the topic of establishment; (5) the topic of defilement and purity; (6) the topic of distinction; (7) the topic of the speaker; (8) the topic of what is spoken; (9) the topic of the assembly. The topic of beings refers to the five appropriated aggregates. The topic of enjoyment refers to the twelve sense bases. The topic of arising refers to the twelvefold dependent origination and what is conditionally arisen. The topic of establishment refers to the four kinds of nutriment. The topic of defilement and purity refers to the four noble truths. The topic of distinction refers to the immeasurable realms. The topic of the speaker refers to the Buddha and His disciples. The topic of what is spoken refers to the bodhi factors, starting with the four foundations of mindfulness. The topic of the assembly refers to the eight assemblies: (1) the assembly of kṣatriyas; (2) the assembly of brāhmaṇas; (3) the assembly of householders; (4) the assembly of śramaṇas; (5) the assembly of the Four Great Heavenly Kings; (6) the assembly of the Thirty-Three Gods; (7) the assembly of the Yāma gods; (8) the assembly of the Brahmā gods." (T30, p294a)

This passage shows that the World-Honored One's more than forty years of teaching amounted to: (1) the five appropriated aggregates; (2) the twelve sense bases; (3) the twelvefold dependent origination and what is conditionally arisen; (4) the four kinds of nutriment; (5) the four noble truths; (6) the immeasurable realms; (a, b) the Buddha and His disciples; (7) the bodhi factors such as the four foundations of mindfulness; (c) the eight assemblies. These formulations match the order above. As for how the twelvefold teachings were reorganized into the four Āgamas, the editorial process was as follows:

- **[1]** Within *Sūtra*, the Aggregate Section, Sense-Base Section, and Dependent-Origination Section were compiled into the *Aggregate Recitation*, *Sense-Base Recitation*, and *Dependent-Origination Recitation* of the *Saṃyuktāgama*; the Path Section was compiled into the *Path Recitation* of the *Saṃyuktāgama*.

- **[2]** *Geyas* (verses of recollection) were distributed at the ends of related Āgama sūtras.

- **[3]** Within *Vyākaraṇa* (prophecy), the disciples' prophecies and the Thus Come One's prophecies were separately compiled into the *Recitation of the Disciples' Words* and the *Recitation of the Thus Come One's Words* of the *Saṃyuktāgama*. The four kinds of responsive prophecies (*catvāri praśna-vyākaraṇāni*) were assigned to the *Madhyamāgama* and *Dīrghāgama*.

- **[4]** Within *Gāthā* (verse recitations), the (a) *Verses of the Senior Monks*, *Śailagāthā*, *Munigāthā*, *Collection of Meanings* (*Saṅgītiparyāya*), *Pārāyaṇa*, and *Verses of the Bhikṣuṇīs* were mostly not included in the four Āgamas (they had already been circulating throughout India). The (b) *Assembly-Correspondence Verses* (containing the *Paṭhamasaraṇādisuttanta* / "Discourses on Seeing the True Truth") were compiled into the *Recitation of the Eight Assemblies* of the *Saṃyuktāgama*.

- **[5]** Within *Udāna* (solemn utterances): the *Udāna* and the *Dhammapada* were not included in the four Āgamas (they had already been circulating throughout India).

- **[A]** *Nidāna* (causes and conditions) were distributed to relevant passages in the *Extended Vinaya* and the Āgamas.

- **[B]** *Avadāna* (parables) were distributed among the *Madhyamāgama*, *Dīrghāgama*, and *Extended Vinaya*. The *Sūtra of the Past Life of King Dīrghāyuṣ* (*Dīrghāyuṣ-kumāra-avadāna*), for instance, went into the *Madhyamāgama*; the *Koṭṭhika-avadāna* and the *Ekavīsati-avadāna* went into the *Extended Vinaya*.

- **[6]** Within *Itivṛttaka* (former events), the (a) *Ekottara-form Itivuttaka = Itivṛttaka-sūtra* was not included in the four Āgamas (it had already been circulating throughout India). The (b) long-form *Itivṛttakas* were split between the *Madhyamāgama* and *Dīrghāgama*. For example, the *Sūtra of the Great King Sudarśana*, the *Sūtra of the Four Continents* and the *Sūtra of the Simile of Cow-Dung* (both related to King Mandhātṛ), and the *Veḍḍigāma-sīvathika-Sūtra* (related to the potter Nandika/Pabbata) all went into the *Madhyamāgama*. The *Mahāgovinda-Sūtra* went into the *Dīrghāgama*. The *Mahāpadāna-Sūtra* and *Mahāparinirvāṇa-Sūtra*, which blend *Avadāna* and *Itivṛttaka* features, likewise went into the *Dīrghāgama*.

- **[7]** *Jātaka* (birth stories) were placed within the *Extended Vinaya*.

- **[8]** *Vaipulya* (extensive sūtras) were split between the *Madhyamāgama* and *Dīrghāgama*. For example, the *Brāhmaṇajāla-Sūtra = Brahmajāla-Sūtra* and the *Mahānidāna-Sūtra = Mahātaṇhaṃsaṅkhaya-Sūtra* went into the *Dīrghāgama*. The *Pañcaskandha-Sūtra = Hastīpadopama-Sūtra* (Simile of the Elephant's Footprint), the *Ṣaḍāyatana-Sūtra = Saḷāyatana-Vibhaṅga-Sūtra*, the *Cūḷasuññata-Sūtra*, the *Mahāsuññata-Sūtra*, and the *Piṅgala-rāja / Bimbisāra-rāja Sūtra* (the *Pāṭaligāma-Piṅgiyānī-rāja Sūtra*) went into the *Madhyamāgama*.

- **[9]** *Adbhutadharma* (rare phenomena) were split between the *Madhyamāgama* and *Dīrghāgama*. For example, the *Pañcāśikā-Sūtra / Pīti-Sūtra* went into the *Dīrghāgama*. The *Acchariya-abbhuta-Sūtra*, *Upatthāka-Sūtra*, *Vakkali-Sūtra*, *Asura-Sūtra*, *Bhūmicāla-Sūtra*, *Caṃpā-Sūtra*, *Ugga-gahapati-Sūtra*, and *Hastaka-gahapati-Sūtra* went into the *Madhyamāgama*.

- **[C]** *Upadeśa* (expositions) were split between the *Madhyamāgama* and *Dīrghāgama*. For example, the *Dhammadinnā-Bhikṣuṇī-Sūtra*, *Mahā-Kaccāna-Sūtra / Mahā-Koṭṭhita-Sūtra*, *Uposatha-Sūtra / Koṭigāma-Indakhīla-Sūtra*, *Sandaka-Sūtra*, *Vīmaṃsaka-Sūtra*, *Ānanda-bhāṣita-Sūtra*, and so on went into the *Madhyamāgama*.

**Summary:** Because the boundaries among [6] *Itivṛttaka*, [7] *Jātaka*, [A] *Nidāna*, and [B] *Avadāna* within the twelvefold teachings are hard to draw, the first Council at Rājagṛha did not adopt that classification. Instead, the compilers first organized the core sūtras by their various "correspondences" to complete the *Saṃyuktāgama*; then sūtras of medium length were gathered into the *Madhyamāgama* and sūtras of long length into the *Dīrghāgama*; finally, sūtras arranged by progressive numerical enumeration were gathered into the *Ekottarāgama*. With this the four Āgamas were complete, and sūtras tied to the Vinaya (such as the *Jātakas*) were placed in the *Extended Vinaya*.

Within this process, the *Saṃyuktāgama* was assembled as follows. First, the Aggregate Section, Sense-Base Section, and Dependent-Origination Section within [1] *Sūtra* were organized into the *Aggregate Recitation*, *Sense-Base Recitation*, and *Dependent-Origination Recitation* of the *Saṃyuktāgama*. Next, the disciples' prophecies and the Thus Come One's prophecies within [3] *Vyākaraṇa* became the *Recitation of the Disciples' Words* and the *Recitation of the Thus Come One's Words*. Then the Path Section within *Sūtra* was organized into the *Path Recitation*. Finally, the (b) *Assembly-Correspondence Verses* (containing the *Paṭhamasaraṇādisuttanta*) within [4] *Gāthā* were organized into the *Recitation of the Eight Assemblies*.

Materials that had already been circulating in various parts of India—the (a) *Verses of the Senior Monks = Verses Spoken by the Senior Monks*, *Śailagāthā = Śailagāthā*, *Munigāthā = Munigāthā*, *Collection of Meanings*, *Pārāyaṇa*, and *Verses of the Bhikṣuṇīs* within [4] *Gāthā*; the *Udāna* and *Dhammapada* within [5] *Udāna*; and the (a) *Ekottara-form Itivuttaka = Itivṛttaka-sūtra* within [6] *Itivṛttaka*—were not included and continued to be recited in their respective regions. These older verses were only gathered in and given a place in the *Khuddaka Nikāya* (Minor Collection) at the Second Council of Vaiśālī.

## Seven. The *Khuddaka* (Minor Collection) after the Second Council

At the Second Council, held one hundred years after the Buddha's nirvāṇa, the Vinaya was compiled first and the Sūtra collection afterward. In compiling the Sūtra, the four Āgamas were slightly adjusted on the one hand—for example, the *Recitation of the Eight Assemblies* in the *Saṃyuktāgama*, which has a verse-like character, was moved before the *Recitation of Dependent Origination*, *Aggregate Recitation*, and *Sense-Base Recitation*, matching the early format of the World-Honored One's teaching, "verse first, sūtra later." On the other hand, the *Gāthā*, *Udāna*, and *Itivṛttaka* not compiled at the first Council were collected into the *Khuddaka* (Minor Collection), called the *Khuddaka Nikāya*, so that five divisions or five Āgamas were formed in total. The contents of this collected *Khuddaka = Khuddaka Nikāya* were:

- From [4] *Gāthā*: the *Śailagāthā*, *Munigāthā*, *Collection of Meanings* (*Saṅgītiparyāya*), and *Pārāyaṇa* were compiled into the *Suttanipāta* of the *Khuddaka Nikāya*; the *Verses of the Senior Monks* into the *Theragāthā*; the *Verses of the Bhikṣuṇīs* into the *Therīgāthā*.

- From [5] *Udāna*: the *Udāna* into the *Udāna* of the *Khuddaka Nikāya*; the *Dhammapada* into the *Dhammapada* of the *Khuddaka Nikāya*.

- From [6] *Itivṛttaka*: the *Ekottara-form Itivuttaka = Itivṛttaka-sūtra* into the *Itivuttaka* of the *Khuddaka Nikāya*.

By the time of the Third Council under King Aśoka (approximately 234 years after the Buddha's nirvāṇa), the *Khuddaka Nikāya* was further expanded to fourteen divisions. The introductory chapter of the *Samantapāsādikā* states:

> "(1) Dhammapada; (2) Avadāna (parables); (3) Udāna; (4) Itivuttaka; (5) Nipāta (*Suttanipāta*); (6) Vimāna (heavenly mansions); (7) Peta (hungry ghosts); (8) Thera (*Theragāthā*); (9) Therī (*Therīgāthā*); (10) Jātaka (birth stories); (11) Niddesa (expositions of meaning); (12) Paṭisambhidā (analytical knowledge); (13) Buddhavaṃsa (Chronicle of the Buddhas); (14) Cariyā (conduct). Thus fourteen divisions were made, all entered into the *Khuddaka*." (T24, p676a)

So the *Khuddaka Nikāya* then comprised fourteen divisions: (1) *Dhammapada*; (2) *Avadāna*; (3) *Udāna*; (4) *Itivuttaka*; (5) *Suttanipāta* (containing the *Śailagāthā*, *Munigāthā*, *Collection of Meanings*, *Pārāyaṇa*, and the like); (6) *Vimānavatthu*; (7) *Petavatthu*; (8) *Theragāthā*; (9) *Therīgāthā*; (10) *Jātaka*; (11) *Niddesa*; (12) *Paṭisambhidāmagga*; (13) *Buddhavaṃsa*; (14) *Cariyāpiṭaka*. The Southern transmission's *Khuddaka Nikāya* as preserved today adds a *Khuddakapāṭha* before the *Dhammapada*, making fifteen divisions in all.

Why is it that the Āgamas transmitted by the various sects know of no tradition of two or three Āgamas, only of four or five? It is because four Āgamas were already compiled at the first Council of Rājagṛha, and this fact was known throughout India. A hundred years later, at the second Council, an additional *Khuddaka* (Minor Collection) was compiled, giving rise to the tradition of five divisions or five Āgamas; but sects that did not participate in this council (such as the Sarvāstivādins) kept the tradition of four Āgamas.

After the second Council, when śrāvaka practitioners transmitted the teaching they followed either the "four Āgamas" or these together with the *Khuddaka Nikāya*, and no longer paid close attention to the older content of the "twelvefold teaching." This in time led different sects to interpret the individual categories of the twelvefold teaching in divergent ways.

When Mahāyāna Buddhism came to flourish in India, the meaning of the twelvefold teaching was revised, primarily to strengthen the bodhisattva path. The *Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra* states:

> "What is *Jātaka*? It is that in which it is taught that the World-Honored One, in past lives, in various regions, in dying and in being born, practiced the bodhisattva path and engaged in difficult practices. This is called *Jātaka*."

> "What is *Vaipulya*? It is that in which the bodhisattva path is extensively taught, in order to cultivate and realize all the qualities leading to anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi, such as the ten powers, the fearlessnesses, and unobstructed knowledge. This is called *Vaipulya*." (T30, p418c)

> "Among the twelvefold teachings, apart from the *Vaipulya* division, the rest are called sūtras corresponding to the śrāvakas. The *Vaipulya* division is called the sūtras corresponding to the Mahāyāna." (T30, p773a)

The *Mahāprajñāpāramitā-śāstra* says:

> "The extensive sūtras (*Vaipulya*) are those of the Mahāyāna—namely, the *Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra*, the *Ṣaṭpāramitā Sūtra*, the *Kusuma-samuccaya* (*Huashou jing*), the *Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-Sūtra*, the *Abhiniṣkramaṇa-Sūtra*, the *Megha-Sūtra*, the *Dharmamegha-Sūtra*, the *Mahāmegha-Sūtra*—and countless other sūtras beyond number." (T25, p308a)

The later *Nyāyānusāra* likewise says:

> "The term *Jātaka* refers to the deeds the bodhisattva practiced in former lives." (T29, p595a)

The above are the later views regarding *Vaipulya* (extensive sūtras) and *Jātaka*. Their meaning clearly emphasizes "the practice of the bodhisattva path."

**Summary:** The original *Vaipulya* sūtras of the ninefold and twelvefold teaching were the "great sūtras corresponding to profound emptiness and dependent origination"—the *Brāhmaṇajāla-Sūtra*, *Māyājāla-Sūtra*, *Pañcaskandha-Sūtra*, *Ṣaḍāyatana-Vibhaṅga-Sūtra*, *Mahānidāna-Sūtra*, *Cūḷasuññata-Sūtra*, *Mahāsuññata-Sūtra*, *Pañcatrivarga-Sūtra*, and *Piṅgiyānī-rāja Sūtra*. By the Mahāyāna period these had been completely replaced by Mahāyāna sūtras such as the *Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra*, *Ṣaṭpāramitā Sūtra*, *Kusuma-samuccaya*, and *Saddharmapuṇḍarīka-Sūtra*.

## Eight. Conclusion

The teachings of the World-Honored One may be summarized as follows:

1. Over more than forty years of teaching the World-Honored One instructed beings according to their capacities. In content, the teachings circulated first as *Udāna*, *Gāthā*, *Sūtra*, and *Geya*; in the middle period they were consolidated into the ninefold teaching; in the later period, into the twelvefold teaching.

2. At the first Council the ninefold or twelvefold teachings were compiled into the four Āgamas and the *Extended Vinaya*. The *Saṃyuktāgama* was compiled first; then the long-form *Itivṛttakas*, *Vaipulyas*, *Adbhutadharmas*, and *Upadeśas* were incorporated into the *Madhyamāgama* and *Dīrghāgama*; the *Jātakas* were mostly incorporated into the *Vinaya*. Within this, the *Saṃyuktāgama* was assembled as follows: first, the Aggregate Section, Sense-Base Section, and Dependent-Origination Section within [1] *Sūtra* were organized into the *Aggregate Recitation*, *Sense-Base Recitation*, and *Dependent-Origination Recitation*; next, the disciples' prophecies and the Thus Come One's prophecies within [3] *Vyākaraṇa* became the *Recitation of the Disciples' Words* and the *Recitation of the Thus Come One's Words*; then the Path Section within *Sūtra* was organized into the *Path Recitation*; finally, the (b) *Assembly-Correspondence Verses* within [4] *Gāthā* were organized into the *Recitation of the Eight Assemblies*.

3. At the Second Council the *Gāthā*, *Udāna*, and *Itivṛttaka* not compiled at the first Council were gathered into the *Khuddaka = Khuddaka Nikāya* (Minor Collection), so that five divisions or five Āgamas were formed in total.

4. The *Vaipulya* in the ninefold and twelvefold teachings originally referred to the "great sūtras of profound emptiness corresponding to dependent origination"; by the Mahāyāna period it had come to refer exclusively to Mahāyāna sūtras.

*(Supplemented from "A Brief Inquiry into the Compilation of the Āgamas from the Ninefold Teaching," February 2004, Faguang Magazine)*