A Preliminary Study on the Emendation of the Saṃyuktāgama Sūtra Texts

A Preliminary Study on the Emendation of the Saṃyuktāgama Sūtra Texts

Lin Chong'an, Yuanguang Institute of Buddhist Studies

Abstract: This paper offers a preliminary study of the emendation of Saṃyuktāgama sūtra texts. The principles guiding this textual work are as follows: (A) the standard sūtra patterns the Buddha regularly used in his teachings; (B) cross-referencing parallel passages found across the collection; (C) exegeses in the Saṃgraha division of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra; (D) suttas with matching content in the Theravāda Pāli Canon; (E) corresponding passages in other Āgama collections; and (F) citations of equivalent suttas found in other śāstras. The paper provides numerous examples to demonstrate how these principles are applied.

Keywords: Saṃyuktāgama, sūtra text emendation, sūtra patterns, Saṃgraha division, Saṃyutta Nikāya

I. Introduction

For anyone seeking to explore the fundamental teachings of Buddhism today, the natural starting point is the scriptures taught by Shakyamuni Buddha (c. 565–486 BCE). Yet over the long centuries of transmission—from oral recitation to written transcription, and finally to translation into other languages—discrepancies inevitably crept in. Cross-referencing different sources to correct the textual record and thereby grasp the original meaning is, therefore, an essential task.

The Saṃyuktāgama [1] captures the essence of Shakyamuni Buddha's more than forty years of teaching. It was translated from Sanskrit into Chinese by Guṇabhadra during the Liu Song dynasty (435–445 CE) and is preserved in Volume 2 of the Taishō Tripiṭaka, comprising 1,362 sūtras, including three related to King Aśoka. The Fo Guang Edition reorganizes the text into 1,359 sūtras (placing the Aśoka Sūtra in an appendix). Venerable Yinshun's Compiled Edition of the Saṃyuktāgama with Its Śāstra further subdivides the collection into 1,341–2 sūtras (also excluding the Aśoka Sūtra). The Insight Meditation Education Edition arranges the text into 1,334 sūtras, again with the Aśoka Sūtra as an appendix.

Preliminary textual corrections already appear in the annotations of the Taishō Tripiṭaka, Yinshun's compiled edition, and the Fo Guang Edition, each drawing on different versions for comparison. Still, further refinements are possible by consulting a broader range of sūtra and śāstra sources. This article takes up that work.

The principles guiding these corrections are:

(A) Relying on the standard sūtra patterns that Shakyamuni Buddha habitually employed; (B) Comparing a passage with what comes before and after it, whether within a single sūtra or across several; (C) Drawing on the explanations found in the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Section on the Summary of the Teachings; (D) Consulting corresponding sūtras in the Southern Pāli canon (primarily the Saṃyutta Nikāya); (E) Consulting other corresponding Āgama sūtras from the Northern tradition; (F) Consulting passages quoted from corresponding sūtras in other Northern treatises.

The representative examples below illustrate this approach. For each corrected passage, the relevant sūtra numbers from Yinshun's compiled edition, the Fo Guang Edition, the Taishō Tripiṭaka, and the Insight Meditation Education Edition are provided for easy cross-reference:

(Yin x) = the x-th sūtra in Yinshun's compiled edition;
(Guang x) = the x-th sūtra in the Fo Guang Edition;
(Da x) = the x-th sūtra in the Taishō Tripiṭaka;
(Nei x) = the x-th sūtra in the Insight Meditation Education Edition.

【Sx】 refers to the x-th sūtra in the corresponding Pāli chapter.

In the Insight Meditation Education Edition, each sūtra is further broken into numbered segments for clarity, and any revised or corrected wording is enclosed in square brackets [].

II. Examples of Sūtra Corrections

Example 1

(1a) What is the arising of form? What is the arising of feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness?

(1b) The foolish, unlearned ordinary person does not truly understand the arising of form, its cessation, its allure, its danger, or the way out of it. Not truly understanding this, they delight in and cling to form, they praise form. Because they delight in and cling to form, grasping arises; grasping is the condition for becoming, becoming is the condition for birth, birth is the condition for aging, death, sorrow, grief, and distress. Thus this whole mass of suffering arises.

(1c) [The foolish, unlearned ordinary person does not truly understand the arising of feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness—their cessation, allure, danger, and the way out of them. Not truly understanding this, they delight in and cling to consciousness, they praise consciousness. Because they delight in and cling to consciousness, grasping arises; grasping is the condition for becoming, becoming is the condition for birth, birth is the condition for aging, death, sorrow, grief, and distress. Thus this whole mass of suffering arises.]

(1d) This is called the arising of form, and the arising of feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness.

(2a) What is the cessation of form? What is the cessation of feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness?

(2b) The learned noble disciple truly understands the arising of form, its cessation, its allure, its danger, and the way out of it. Truly understanding this, they do not delight in or cling to form, they do not praise form. Because they do not delight in or cling to form, attachment and delight cease; when attachment and delight cease, grasping ceases; when grasping ceases, becoming ceases; when becoming ceases, birth ceases; when birth ceases, aging, death, sorrow, grief, and distress cease. Thus this whole mass of suffering ceases.

(2c) The learned noble disciple truly understands the arising of feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness—their cessation, allure, danger, and the way out of them. Truly understanding this, they do not delight in or cling to consciousness, they do not praise consciousness. Because they do not delight in or cling to consciousness, attachment and delight cease; when attachment and delight cease, grasping ceases; when grasping ceases, becoming ceases; when becoming ceases, birth ceases; when birth ceases, aging, death, sorrow, grief, and distress cease. Thus this whole mass of suffering ceases.

(2d) Bhikkhus, this is called the cessation of form, and the cessation of feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness.

(Yin 86)(Guang 58)(Da 67)(Nei 57)

Explanation: The older version of the sūtra is missing passage (1c). The added text is marked with square brackets [], because passages (1a–d) and (2a–d) mirror each other: the former describes the forward sequence of arising, the latter the reverse sequence of cessation. This is a standard sūtra pattern that the Buddha frequently employed [2]. By comparing the preceding and following passages, we can see at a glance that (1c) is missing. This example applies principle (A), the standard sūtra pattern, and principle (B), comparison with surrounding passages. In other sūtras, (1c) and (2c) are sometimes condensed to "the same applies to feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness." (See Example 13 below.)

Example 2

(1a) At that time, the Venerable Śāriputra said to the bhikkhus: "If a bhikkhu attains boundless samādhi, dwells in it fully realized through the body, yet does not delight in the nirvāṇa of the cessation of existence, but still clings to the notion of self—"

(1b) "it is like a man whose hand is stuck with glue: he grabs a tree branch, and his hand sticks to the tree and cannot pull free. Why? Because of the glue on his hand."

(1c) "So too, a bhikkhu who attains boundless samādhi and dwells in it fully realized through the body, yet whose mind does not delight in the nirvāṇa of the cessation of existence and who still clings to the notion of self, will never be free."

(2a) "He cannot follow the Dharma teachings in this present life, gains nothing even up to the moment of death, returns to be reborn in this world, and can never break through the darkness of delusion."

(2b) "It is like a muddy pool beside a village: the mud is deep and clinging. After a long drought with no rain, the water dries up and the ground cracks open."

(2c) "So too, such a bhikkhu does not see the Dharma or follow its teachings, gains nothing even up to the moment of death, and when reborn falls back into this world again."

(3a) "If a bhikkhu attains boundless samādhi, dwells in it fully realized through the body, and his mind delights in and trusts the nirvāṇa of the cessation of existence, not clinging to the notion of self—"

(3b) "it is like a man with clean hands holding a tree branch: his hand does not stick to the tree. Why? Because his hands are clean."

(3c) "So too, a bhikkhu who attains boundless samādhi and dwells in it fully realized through the body, whose mind delights in and trusts the nirvāṇa of the cessation of consciousness, and who does not cling to the notion of self—"

(4a) "He follows the Dharma teachings in this present life, and will not be reborn in this world again even up to the moment of death. Therefore, bhikkhus, you should strive diligently to destroy ignorance."

(4b) "It is like a muddy pool beside a village: water flows in from all four directions and frequent rains fall, so the pool constantly fills, overflows, and the filth washes away, leaving the pool pure and clean."

(4c) "So too, such bhikkhus follow the Dharma teachings in this present life and will not be reborn in this world again even up to the moment of death. Therefore, bhikkhus, you should strive diligently to destroy ignorance."

(Yin 1548)(Guang 491)(Da 492)(Nei 658)【Ekottara, IV, 178】

Explanation: First the sūtra is divided into numbered segments. We can see that passages (1a–c) and (3a–c) mirror each other—the former describing the forward sequence, the latter the reverse. Likewise, (2a–c) and (4a–c) correspond. By separating the Dharma teaching from its analogy and supplying the missing phrases, we arrive at the clearly structured corrected text:

(1b) "it is like a man whose hand is stuck with glue: he grabs a tree branch, and his hand sticks to the tree and cannot pull free. Why? Because of the glue on his hand."

(1c) 〔So too,〕 a bhikkhu who attains boundless samādhi and dwells in it fully realized through the body, yet whose mind does not delight in the nirvāṇa of the cessation of existence and who still clings to the notion of self, will never be free.

(2a) 〔If a bhikkhu attains boundless samādhi,〕 he cannot follow the Dharma teachings in this present life, gains nothing even up to the moment of death, returns to be reborn in this world, and can never break through the darkness of delusion.

(2b) "It is like a muddy pool beside a village: the mud is deep and clinging. After a long drought with no rain, the water dries up and the ground cracks open."

(2c) So too, such a bhikkhu does not see the 〔present〕 Dharma or follow its teachings, gains nothing even up to the moment of death, and when reborn falls back into this world again.

(3b) "it is like a man with clean hands holding a tree branch: his hand does not stick to the tree. Why? Because his hands are clean."

(4a) 〔If a bhikkhu attains boundless samādhi,〕 he follows the Dharma teachings in this present life, and will not be reborn in this world again even up to the moment of death. Therefore, bhikkhus, you should strive diligently to destroy ignorance.

This example applies principle (A), the standard sūtra pattern, and principle (B), comparison with surrounding passages. It also draws on the Southern tradition's Ekottara Āgama to supply missing phrases (the Southern text presents the segments in the order 1-3-2-4). All supplemented wording is enclosed in brackets 〔〕.

Example 3

(1a) He replied: "Brahmin, let me put a question to you—answer as you see fit. What do you think? Before you set out, did you have the desire to come to the monastery?"

(1b) The brahmin replied: "Yes, Ānanda."

(1c) "Then, brahmin, once you arrived at the monastery, did that desire subside?"

(1d) 〔He replied: "Yes, Venerable."〕

(2a) 〔He asked further: "Brahmin, did you also have diligence, effort, and deliberation in coming to the monastery?"〕

(2b) He replied: "Yes, Venerable Ānanda. 〔I had〕 diligence, effort, and deliberation in coming to the monastery."

(2c) He asked further: "Once you arrived at the monastery, did that diligence, effort, and deliberation subside?"

(2d) He replied: "Yes, Venerable."

(Yin 1637)(Guang 560)(Da 561)(Nei 450)【S15】

Explanation: Again, the sūtra is first divided into numbered segments. We can see that the flow from (1d) into (2a) breaks off—the tone doesn't connect, indicating missing text. The corrected version reads:

(1a) He replied: "Brahmin, let me put a question to you—answer as you see fit. What do you think? Before you set out, did you have the desire to come to the monastery?"

(1b) The brahmin replied: "Yes, Ānanda."

(1c) "Then, brahmin, once you arrived at the monastery, did that desire subside?"

(1d) 〔He replied: "Yes, Venerable."〕

(2a) 〔He asked further: "Brahmin, did you also have diligence, effort, and deliberation in coming to the monastery?"〕

(2b) He replied: "Yes, Venerable Ānanda. 〔I had〕 diligence, effort, and deliberation in coming to the monastery."

(2c) He asked further: "Once you arrived at the monastery, did that diligence, effort, and deliberation subside?"

(2d) He replied: "Yes, Venerable."

Example 4

(1) At that time, a number of bhikkhus robed themselves, took their bowls, and entered the village of Nālika for alms. There they heard that the lay practitioner Jiājiāshè had died in the village of Nālika, along with Níjiāzhà, Qèléngjiāluó, Jiāduōlíshā, Póshélù, Yōupóshélù, Lísèzhà, Ālísèzhà, Bátuóluó Xūbátuóluó, Yéshè, Yéshūtuó, and Yéshè Yùduōluó—all of whom had passed away. On hearing this, they returned to the monastery, put away their robes and bowls, washed their feet, and went to the Buddha. They bowed at his feet, sat to one side, and said: "World-Honored One, this morning a number of us entered the village of Nālika for alms and heard that the lay practitioner Jiājiāshè and the others had passed away. World-Honored One, where will they be reborn?"

(2) The Buddha told the bhikkhus: "Jiājiāshè and the others have already severed the five lower fetters, attained the fruit of non-returning, and will attain final nirvāṇa in the heavenly realms. They will not return to this world."

(3) The bhikkhus said to the Buddha: "World-Honored One, more than 250 lay practitioners have also passed away, and in this same village of Nālika, another 500 lay practitioners have died. [World-Honored One, where will they be reborn?]"

(4) The Buddha told the bhikkhus: "[In this village of Nālika, more than 250 lay practitioners who have passed away have all severed the three fetters, thinned their greed, hatred, and delusion, attained the fruit of once-returning, and will return for one more life before reaching the end of suffering. Another 500 lay practitioners who have passed away in this village have severed the three fetters, attained the fruit of stream-entry, will not fall into evil destinies, are firmly directed toward enlightenment, will be reborn among gods and humans at most seven more times, and will thereby reach the end of suffering.]"

(5) "To ask me about each and every person's rebirth, one after another—that is pointless. It is not a question the Tathāgata takes pleasure in answering. All who are born must die—what is remarkable about that? Whether or not a Tathāgata appears in the world, the nature of the Dharma remains ever the same."

(Yin 1158)(Guang 866)(Da 854)(Nei 650)【S10】

Explanation: The older version of the sūtra has omissions in passages (3) and (4), which have been supplied here. In correcting this passage, we drew on the corresponding 【S10】 sūtra in the Southern Pāli canon, as well as on the Traveling Sūtra within the Northern Dīrgha Āgama, where Ānanda asks: "In the village of Nāda, twelve householders have passed away, fifty have passed away, and another five hundred—where will they be reborn?" [3] The Buddha answered Ānanda and taught the Dharma mirror. This example applies principle (D), corresponding sūtras in the Southern Pāli canon, and principle (E), other corresponding Āgama sūtras from the Northern tradition.

Example 5

(1) At that time, the World-Honored One said to the bhikkhus: "I will teach the practice of the four establishments of mindfulness. Listen closely and reflect well. What is the practice of the four establishments of mindfulness?"

(2a) It is abiding in the contemplation of the body as body internally, with diligent effort, right knowing, and right mindfulness, calming worldly sorrow and grief; [abiding in the contemplation of] the body as body externally and both internally and externally [with mindfulness], with diligent effort, [right knowing, and right mindfulness], calming worldly sorrow and grief.

(2b) So too with feeling and mind, [abiding in the contemplation of phenomena as phenomena internally, externally, and both internally and externally], with diligent effort, [right knowing, and right mindfulness], calming worldly sorrow and grief.

(3) This is called a bhikkhu's [present] practice of the four establishments of mindfulness. When the Buddha had spoken this sūtra, the bhikkhus, having heard his words, rejoiced and put them into practice.

(4) The practice of the four establishments of mindfulness in the past and future is taught in the same way.

(Yin 765–767)(Guang 624)(Da 610)(Nei 414)【S3】

Explanation: The correction of this passage draws on the Northern Dharmaskandha-śāstra [4].

。Drawing on the corresponding sutra quoted in the Dharma-bundle Treatise (法蕴足论), "Foundations of Mindfulness Chapter" (念住品), the passage runs as follows: (1) At that time, the World-honored One addressed the bhikṣu assembly: "I shall briefly explain for you the Dharma of cultivating the four foundations of mindfulness." (2a) It means a bhikṣu abides contemplating the body in regard to this internal body, equipped with right effort, right knowing, and right mindfulness, thereby removing worldly greed and sorrow. He abides contemplating the body in regard to external bodies, equipped with right effort, right knowing, and right mindfulness, thereby removing worldly greed and sorrow. He abides contemplating the body in regard to both internal and external bodies, equipped with right effort, right knowing, and right mindfulness, thereby removing worldly greed and sorrow. (2b) Regarding both internal and external in the three categories of feeling, mind, and dharmas, the same is to be explained in detail. (3) This is the present cultivation of the four foundations of mindfulness. (4) One should know that bhikṣus of the past who cultivated the four foundations of mindfulness were likewise; and the same holds for bhikṣus of the future. On comparison, the paragraphs and contents of these two sutras are clearly consistent. The northern transmission's Saṃyuktāgama and the Dharma-bundle Treatise both belong to the Sarvāstivāda school (unlike the southern transmission; the southern version of this sutra makes no mention of the three times). The Dharma-bundle Treatise in all quotes twenty-one sutras, many of which parallel passages in the Saṃyuktāgama. Since this sutra (together with the Saṃgraha-vibhāga section) emphasizes cultivating the four foundations of mindfulness across "present," "past," and "future," it seems more reasonable to supply the character [現] (xiàn, "present") in passage (3) of the original text. This example emends the sutra text on the strength of (F) corresponding sutras quoted in other northern transmission treatises. The five examples above mostly fall under the category of "omissions" (脫漏類); such losses of words may have arisen through copying and printing over the generations, though it is also possible that the original Sanskrit already read this way, or that the translator himself abbreviated.

Sutra Example Six

(1) At that time, the World-honored One addressed the monks: "Suppose there is a river of ashes, with its southern bank extremely hot, full of sharp thorns, and lying in darkness. Many sinners are in the river, drifting along with the current. (2) Among them is one person who is not foolish, not stupid, but wise and discerning—delighting in happiness, averse to suffering, fond of life, in dread of death. He reflects: 'Why am I now in this river of ashes, with a scorching southern bank and many sharp thorns, drifting along in darkness? I shall use my hands and feet to struggle upstream.' (Middle section omitted) (3) Monks, I have given this simile; now I shall give its meaning. 'Ashes' refers to the three unwholesome cognitions. What three? The cognition of desire, the cognition of anger, and the cognition of harming. 'River' refers to the three cravings: craving for sensuality, craving for form, and craving for formlessness. 'The scorching southern bank' refers to the internal and external six sense bases." (Yin 395) (Guang 271) (Da 1177) (Nei 192)

Explanation: According to the interpretation in the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Saṃgraha-vibhāga section: seeing those internal and external six sense bases, one is beset by the fire-hazard of the three poisons, dwelling on both banks.[5] From this we can tell that the sutra's "southern bank" (南岸) is an error for [both banks] (兩岸). This example emends the text on the basis of (C) the explanation in the Saṃgraha-vibhāga section. The instance above belongs to the category of "erroneous characters" (錯字類); such errors, too, may have arisen through copying and printing over the generations.

Sutra Example Seven

(a) The Buddha told Xianni: "My disciples, hearing what I have taught, do not fully grasp its meaning and yet [give rise to] a conceit of non-realization (anāvaraṇa-darśana). Lacking realization, conceit is not severed. Because conceit is not severed, after casting off this aggregate they continue on, bound to aggregates. Therefore, Xianni, I predict that these disciples, when their body breaks up and their life ends, will be reborn in such and such a place. Why so? Because they still have a remainder of conceit."

(b) "Xianni, my disciples who can grasp the meaning of my teaching—they come to realize the various conceits, and with that realization conceits are severed. Because conceits are severed, when their body breaks up and life ends they no longer continue. Xianni, of such disciples I do not say that after casting off this aggregate they are reborn in such and such a place. Why so? Because there is no cause-and-condition one could point to and predict. If anyone wishes me to make a prediction of them, one should predict that they have cut off all attachments and cravings, forever freed from the bonds of existence, their minds perfectly liberated, having reached the ultimate end of suffering."

(Yin 173) (Guang 107) (Da 105) (Nei 105)

Explanation: Sutra passages (a) and (b) correspond to each other—the former the gate of transmigration, the latter the gate of return to cessation. The Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Saṃgraha-vibhāga section, says: here, ordinary beings neither understand the meaning of all the Buddha's teachings, nor perceive conceit to be conceit, and are unable to sever it.[6] Comparing the meaning of the passage before and after, one can see that the old text of (a) should be emended to:

(a) The Buddha told Xianni: "My disciples, hearing what I have taught, do not fully grasp its meaning, [have not given rise to a conceit of realization], and lacking realization, conceit is not severed. Because conceit is not severed, after casting off this aggregate they continue on, [bound to] the remaining aggregates. Therefore, Xianni, I predict that these disciples, when their body breaks up and their life ends, will be reborn in such and such a place. Why so? Because they still have a remainder of conceit."

Here "realization" (無間等) is an old translation of "direct knowing" (abhisamaya). Because sutra passages (a) and (b) correspond, the misprint (or mistranslation) in (a), "yet give rise to a conceit of realization" (而起慢無間等), can be corrected to [have not given rise to a conceit of realization] (未起慢無間等) or [do not realize the various conceits] (於諸慢非無間等), which accords with the gloss "do not perceive conceit to be conceit." This example applies (A) "sutra pattern," (B) comparison of the sutra text before and after, and (C) the explanation in the Saṃgraha-vibhāga section to emend the sutra text.

Sutra Example Eight

(1a) Mahānāma, by what cause and condition are beings afflicted? By what cause and condition are beings purified?

(1b) Mahānāma, if form were not wholly suffering, and were not pleasant, not accompanied by pleasure, not nurtured by pleasure, not free from pleasure, then beings would not, on its account, give rise to attachment to pleasure. Mahānāma, because form is not wholly suffering, [it is] pleasant, accompanied by pleasure, nurtured by pleasure, not free from pleasure; therefore beings are stained by attachment to form; stained by attachment, they are bound; being bound, they have distress.

(1c) Mahānāma, if feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness were not wholly suffering, and were not pleasant, not accompanied by pleasure, not nurtured by pleasure, not free from pleasure, then beings would not, on their account, give rise to attachment to pleasure. Mahānāma, because consciousness is not wholly suffering, [it is] pleasant, accompanied by pleasure, nurtured by pleasure, not free from pleasure; therefore beings are stained by attachment to consciousness; stained by attachment, they are bound; being bound, distress arises.

(1d) Mahānāma, this is called the case where, by cause and condition, beings are afflicted.

(2a) Mahānāma, by what cause and condition are beings purified?

(2b) Mahānāma, if form were wholly pleasant, and were not suffering, not accompanied by suffering, not nurtured by sorrowful suffering, not free from suffering, then beings would not, on account of form, give rise to weariness and detachment. Mahānāma, because form is not wholly pleasant, [it is] suffering, accompanied by suffering, nurtured by sorrowful suffering, not free from suffering; therefore beings grow weary of form; growing weary, they do not delight; not delighting, they are liberated.

(2c) Mahānāma, if feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness were wholly pleasant, and were not suffering, not accompanied by suffering, not nurtured by sorrowful suffering, not free from suffering, then beings would not, on their account, give rise to weariness and detachment. Mahānāma, because feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness are not wholly pleasant, [they are] suffering, accompanied by suffering, nurtured by sorrowful suffering, not free from suffering; therefore beings grow weary of consciousness; growing weary, they do not delight; not delighting, they are liberated.

(2d) Mahānāma, this is called the case where, by cause and condition, beings are purified.

(Yin 138) (Guang 72) (Da 81) (Nei 71) 【S60】

Explanation: Sutra passages (1b–d) and (2a–d) correspond to each other—the former the gate of transmigration, the latter the gate of return to cessation. This is a "sutra pattern" the World-honored One frequently employed in his teachings. Now applying (A) "sutra pattern," (B) comparison of the sutra text before and after, (C) the treatise passage in the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Saṃgraha-vibhāga section, and (D) the corresponding sutra 【S60】 in the Pāli Canon of the southern transmission—and comparing (1b–d) against (2b–d)—one can emend (1b–d) as follows:

(1b) Mahānāma, [if form were wholly suffering], and were not pleasant, not accompanied by pleasure, not nurtured by pleasure, not free from pleasure, then beings would not, on its account, give rise to attachment to pleasure. Mahānāma, because form is not wholly suffering, [it is] pleasant, accompanied by pleasure, nurtured by pleasure, not free from pleasure; therefore beings are stained by attachment to form; stained by attachment, they are bound; being bound, they have distress.

(1c) Mahānāma, if feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness [were wholly suffering], and were not pleasant, not accompanied by pleasure, not nurtured by pleasure, not free from pleasure, then beings would not, on their account, give rise to attachment to pleasure. Mahānāma, because consciousness is not wholly suffering, [it is] pleasant, accompanied by pleasure, nurtured by pleasure, not free from pleasure; therefore beings are stained by attachment to consciousness; stained by attachment, they are bound; being bound, they have distress.

(1d) Mahānāma, this is called the case where, by cause and condition, beings are afflicted.

Sutra Example Nine

(1) Mahākoṭṭhita again asked Śāriputra: "Having attained the fruit of the anāgāmi, one who wishes to attain the fruit of the arhat—what Dharma should one contemplate?"

(2) Śāriputra replied: "Koṭṭhita, having attained the fruit of the anāgāmi, one who wishes to attain the fruit of the arhat should again diligently contemplate as follows: these five aggregates subject to grasping are like a disease, like a boil, like a thorn, like a dart—impermanent, suffering, empty, not-self. Why so? Because this is where one ought to apply oneself. If a bhikṣu diligently contemplates these five aggregates subject to grasping, he attains the fruit of the arhat."

(3) Mahākoṭṭhita again asked Śāriputra: "Having attained the fruit of the arhat, what further Dharma should one contemplate?"

(4) Śāriputra replied: "Mahākoṭṭhita, an arhat too contemplates as follows: these five aggregates subject to grasping are like a disease, like a boil, like a thorn, like a dart—impermanent, suffering, empty, not-self. Why so? For the sake of gaining what is not yet gained, certifying what is not yet certified, and abiding in the joy of seeing the Dharma."

(Yin 42) (Guang 36) (Da 259) (Nei 35) 【S122–123】

Explanation: The gloss on sutra passage (4) given in the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Saṃgraha-vibhāga section, reads: once one has attained the fruit of the arhat, there is nothing further unattained to attain, nothing uncertified to certify, for which one would righteously strive; one strives only for the sake of joyful abiding in the present Dharma.[7] The same meaning is found in the Pāli Canon 【S122–123】 of the southern transmission. Sutra passage (4) should therefore be emended to:

(4) Śāriputra replied: "Mahākoṭṭhita, an arhat too contemplates as follows: these five aggregates subject to grasping are like a disease, like a boil, like a thorn, like a dart—impermanent, suffering, empty, not-self. Why so? [There is no] gaining of what is not yet gained, certifying of what is not yet certified; [it is only] for the sake of abiding in the joy of seeing the Dharma."

This example emends the sutra text on the strength of (C) the treatise passage in the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Saṃgraha-vibhāga section, and (D) the corresponding sutra in the Pāli Canon of the southern transmission. These three instances belong to the category of "unclear translations" (譯文不清類) or "mistranslations" (誤譯類), in which the meaning is sometimes even reversed—though such errors could of course also come from copying or printing.

Sutra Example Ten

(1) If a restless mind arises, if the mind wavers in its restlessness, one should cultivate the awakening-factor of tranquility, the awakening-factor of meditative absorption, and the awakening-factor of equanimity. Why so?

(2) When a restless mind arises, when the mind wavers in its restlessness, these dharmas can settle the mind inwardly in one-pointed holding.

(3) For example, if one wishes to extinguish a blazing fire, one trims back the charred coals, and the fire goes out.

(4) Monks, thus: a restless mind, a wavering mind—cultivating the awakening-factor of discernment of dharmas and the awakening-factors of effort and joy is not the time; cultivating tranquility, meditative absorption, and equanimity—from this point [is] not the time; these dharmas settle the mind inwardly in one-pointed holding; the awakening-factor of mindfulness assists all.

(Yin 911) (Guang 726) (Da 714) (Nei 517) 【S53】

Explanation: The punctuation of passage (4) in the Taishō Tripiṭaka edition is unclear. Now, drawing on (D) the corresponding sutra 【S53】 in the Pāli Canon of the southern transmission, and noting that the Koryŏ Tripiṭaka edition reads "自此則是時" ("from this point is the time") where the Taishō has "自此則非時" ("from this point is not the time"), the passage is emended as follows:

(4a) Monks, thus: [a restless mind], a wavering mind—cultivating the awakening-factor of discernment of dharmas and the awakening-factors of effort and joy is not the time; cultivating tranquility, meditative absorption, and equanimity—from this point [is] the time; these dharmas [can] settle the mind inwardly in one-pointed holding.

(4b) The awakening-factor of mindfulness assists all.

Sutra Example Eleven

(a) Nātika, if with respect to the Tathāgata, in such a case [there arises] a passing beyond, a faring out, a tranquil cessation, and the joy of perfect enlightenment, then with respect to whatever benefits and pleasures arise here and there, there may be relish and seeking.

(b) Nātika, I alone, in a case like this, attain a passing beyond, a faring out, a tranquil cessation, and the joy of perfect enlightenment—gained unasked and without hardship; so how could there be [a need for] whatever benefits and pleasures that arise here and there, with relish and seeking?

(c) Nātika, you, in such a case with respect to form, do not attain a passing beyond, a faring out, a tranquil cessation, and the joy of perfect enlightenment; therefore you do not gain the unasked happiness and the hardship-free happiness.

(d) Nātika, the gods likewise do not attain, in such a case, a passing beyond, a faring out, a tranquil cessation, and the joy of perfect enlightenment, the unasked happiness and the hardship-free happiness. Only I attain, in such a case, a passing beyond, a faring out, a tranquil cessation, and the joy of perfect enlightenment, the unasked happiness and the hardship-free happiness; so how could there be [a need for] whatever benefits and pleasures that arise here and there, with relish and seeking?"

(Yin 13343) (Guang 994) (Da 1250) (Nei 970) 【Aṅguttara Nikāya 5:30】

Explanation: Comparing (B) the passage before and after, one can see that (a) and (b) do not line up. Drawing on (D) the corresponding sutra 【Aṅguttara Nikāya 5:30】 in the Pāli Canon of the southern transmission, (a) should be emended to:

(a) Nātika, if with respect to the Tathāgata, in such a case [one does] not [attain] a passing beyond, a faring out, a tranquil cessation, and the joy of perfect enlightenment, then with respect to whatever benefits and pleasures arise here and there, there may be relish and seeking.

This example falls under "mistranslations," where the meaning has been rendered as its opposite—though it could also be an error of copying or printing.

Sutra Example Twelve

The Buddha told Mahānāma: "'The Well-Gone One, the Well-Gone One'—the one called the Well-Gone One is spoken of by the noble disciple; with mouth speaking of the Well-Gone One, and with mind bearing right mindfulness and direct insight, one fully enters the Well-Gone One. 'The True Dharma and Vinaya, the True Dharma and Vinaya'—the one called the True Dharma and Vinaya is spoken of by the noble disciple; with mouth speaking of the True Dharma, [with] mind bearing right mindfulness and direct insight, one fully enters the True Dharma. 'The Saṅgha of Good Practice, the Saṅgha of Good Practice'—the one called the Saṅgha of Good Practice is spoken of by the noble disciple; with mouth speaking of the Saṅgha of Good Practice, [with] mind…

(Yin 13276) (Guang 928) (Da 936) (Nei 904) 【S, Sotāpanna 24】

Explanation: The punctuation in each of the editions above is unclear. Dividing the passage into paragraphs, and drawing on (B) comparison of the sutra text before and after together with (D) the corresponding sutra 【S, Sotāpanna 24】 in the Pāli Canon of the southern transmission, the text is emended as follows:

(a) The Buddha told Mahānāma: "'The Well-Gone One, the Well-Gone One'—the one called the Well-Gone One is spoken of by the noble disciple; with mouth speaking of the Well-Gone One, and with mind bearing right mindfulness and direct insight, one fully enters the Well-Gone One.

(b) 'The True Dharma and Vinaya, the True Dharma and Vinaya'—the one called the True Dharma and Vinaya is spoken of by the noble disciple; with mouth speaking of the True Dharma, [and with] mind bearing right mindfulness and direct insight, one fully enters the True Dharma.

(c) 'The Saṅgha of Good Practice, the Saṅgha of Good Practice'—the one called the Saṅgha of Good Practice is spoken of by the noble disciple; with mouth speaking of the Saṅgha of Good Practice, [and with]

With right mindfulness and right view, one enters fully into the wholesome path. The three examples above also fall into the category of passages affected by unclear punctuation or translation errors.

Sutta Example 13 (comprising two sutta passages)

(1a) At that time, the Blessed One addressed the remaining five bhikkhus: "Form is not self. If form were self, then form would not give rise to illness and suffering; one would also [be able to] make form be as one wishes, or not be as one wishes. Because form is not self, illness and suffering arise from form; one is [unable to] make form be as one wishes, or not be as one wishes. (1b) Feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness are likewise. (2a) "Bhikkhus, what do you think? Is form permanent or impermanent?" (2b) The bhikkhus replied to the Buddha: "Impermanent, Lord." (2c) "Bhikkhus, if it is impermanent, is it suffering?" (2d) The bhikkhus replied to the Buddha: "It is suffering, Lord." (2e) "Bhikkhus, if it is impermanent, suffering, and subject to change, would a learned noble disciple ever see it as self, other-than-self, or both self and other?" (2f) The bhikkhus replied to the Buddha: "No, Lord." (2g) "Feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness are likewise. (3a) Therefore, bhikkhus, all form, whether past, future, or present; internal or external; gross or subtle; beautiful or ugly; far or near—all of it is not self, not belonging to self. See this as it truly is, with clear discernment. (3b) Feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness are likewise." (印一四六)(光八○)(大三四)(内七九)【S59】

Next follows the text of the subsequent sutta: (4a) At that time, the Blessed One, knowing the thoughts in their minds, gave them this teaching: "Bhikkhus, this mind, this intention, this consciousness: you should contemplate this, not contemplate that; cut off this craving, cut off this form, abide fully in the direct realization attained through the body. (4b)[Feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness are likewise.] (5a) "Bhikkhus, is there any form that is permanent, unchanging, and stable?" (5b) The bhikkhus replied to the Buddha: "No, Lord." (5c) The Buddha told the bhikkhus: "Excellent, excellent! Form is impermanent, [subject to change]. It is to be seen with disenchantment, let go of, extinguished, stilled, and brought to cessation. Thus, form has been entirely impermanent, suffering, and subject to change from the very beginning. Seeing this clearly, all taints, affliction, burning, and sorrow born from clinging to form are fully cut away. Once cut away, there is no clinging. Without clinging, one dwells in peace; dwelling in peace, one attains final Nibbāna. (5d) Feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness are likewise." (印一四七)(光八一)(大三五)(内八○)

Explanation: Comparing the two adjacent sutta passages makes clear that the second passage requires the insertion of (4b): [Feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness are likewise]. Further, aligning with the meaning of the equivalent Theravāda Pali Canon sutta [S59], the first passage’s (1a) should read: (1a) At that time, the Blessed One addressed the remaining five bhikkhus: "Form is not self. If form were self, then form would not give rise to illness and suffering; one would also [be able to] make form be as one wishes, or not be as one wishes. Because form is not self, illness and suffering arise from form; one is [unable to] make form be as one wishes, or not be as one wishes." This example applies method (B) (comparison with preceding and following suttas) and method (D) (reliance on equivalent suttas in the Theravāda Pali Canon) to supplement and correct the text.

Sutta Example 14 (comprising two sutta passages)

(1) Kaśyapa addressed the Buddha: "At that time, the Blessed One was staying in Bhaṅga village, in Bhaṅga grove, teaching the bhikkhus the dhamma aligned with the precepts, and praising those precepts. At that time, I felt distressed, displeased, and resistant in my heart while in the Blessed One’s presence, and I said: 'This ascetic lays down these precepts so strictly, and praises these precepts so highly.' Lord, today I know my own fault and regret it, I see my own fault and regret it; I only wish the Blessed One would accept my repentance, out of compassion for me!"

(2) The Buddha told Kaśyapa: "Your regret springs from delusion, unwholesome intention, and a lack of clear discernment. You heard me teach the bhikkhus the dhamma aligned with the precepts, praising the established precepts, yet you felt distressed, displeased, and resistant in my presence, and said: 'This ascetic lays down these precepts so strictly, praises these precepts so highly.' Now, Kaśyapa, since you have recognized your fault and seen your regret, the discipline of the precepts will arise for you in the future; [I accept you now], out of compassion for you.

(3) "Kaśyapa, for one who repents in this way, wholesome dhammas grow, and never decrease. Why is that? If a person recognizes their own fault, sees their own fault, and repents of it, the discipline of the precepts will arise for them in the future, wholesome dhammas will grow, and will never decrease.

(4a) "Even if a senior [elder bhikkhu], Kaśyapa, has no wish to learn the precepts, does not hold them in esteem, and does not praise the established precepts, I do not praise such a bhikkhu. Why is that? If the Master [praises that person], others will associate with, respect, and hold dear that person. If others associate with, respect, and hold dear that person, they will share the same view, and do the same deeds as that person; those who do the same deeds will experience long-term unprofitable suffering. Therefore, I never praise such an elder, because they did not delight in learning the precepts from the start.

(4b) This holds equally for elder, middle-aged, and young bhikkhus alike.

(5a) "If a senior bhikkhu values learning the precepts from the outset, and praises the established precepts, I praise such a person, for they delighted in [learning the precepts] from the very beginning. Those whom the Master praises, others will also associate with, respect, and hold dear, sharing their view; because they share the same view, in the future they will experience long-term profitable benefit. Therefore, I always praise such an elder bhikkhu, because they delighted in learning the precepts from the start.

(5b) This also holds for middle-aged and young bhikkhus." (印一一二一)(光八四二)(大八三○)(内六一九)【增三90】

Next follows the text of the subsequent sutta: (6a) At that time, the Blessed One addressed the bhikkhus: "If senior elder bhikkhus do not delight in learning the precepts from the start, do not value the precepts, and see other bhikkhus who delight in learning the precepts from the start, value the precepts, and praise the established precepts, they also fail to praise those bhikkhus in a timely way. I also do not praise such bhikkhus, because they did not delight in learning the precepts from the start. Why is that? If the Master praises that person, others will associate with, respect, and hold dear them, sharing their view; because they share the same view, they will experience long-term unprofitable suffering. Therefore, I never [praise such an elder, because they did not delight in learning the precepts from the start.] (6b) The same applies to middle-aged and young bhikkhus alike. (7) Those who delight in learning the precepts are as explained previously." (印一一二二)(光八四三)(大八三一)(内六二○)

Explanation: Comparing the two adjacent suttas makes clear that the first sutta’s (4a-b) and (5a-b) correspond to each other: the former is the gate of saṃsāric flow, the latter is the gate of liberation. The second sutta’s (6a-b) is the gate of saṃsāric flow, corresponding to the first sutta’s (4a-b); the earlier text has now been corrected. The second sutta’s (7) is the gate of liberation, corresponding to the first sutta’s (5a-b), only appearing in abbreviated form. This correction also referenced the Theravāda Pali Canon sutta [E3, 90]. This example applies method (A) "sutta typology," method (B) comparison with preceding and following suttas, and method (D) reliance on equivalent suttas in the Theravāda Pali Canon, to supplement and correct the text.

Sutta Example 15

(a) At that time, the Blessed One addressed the bhikkhus: "When one reflects and investigates in order to fully end suffering, to reach the far shore of suffering, how does one contemplate the manifold distinctions of all the various sufferings beings experience? What is the cause, gathering, arising, [and turning] of these sufferings? Reflect that clinging is the cause, gathering, arising, and turning of suffering; if that clinging is extinguished without remainder, all suffering ceases. Knowing the path that leads to the cessation of that suffering, and practicing the successive steps along that path—this is called a bhikkhu who is proceeding to fully end suffering, to reach the far shore of suffering, namely the cessation of clinging.

(b) "Furthermore, bhikkhus, when one reflects and investigates to fully end suffering, [reach the far shore of suffering], reflect on what is the cause, gathering, arising, and turning of that clinging? Reflect that clinging has craving as its cause, gathering, arising, and turning; if that craving is extinguished without remainder, clinging also ceases. Knowing the path that leads to the cessation of clinging, and practicing the successive steps along that path—this is called a bhikkhu who is proceeding to fully end suffering, to reach the far shore of suffering, namely the cessation of craving.

(c) "Furthermore, bhikkhus, when one reflects and investigates to fully end suffering, to reach the far shore of suffering, one reflects on what is the cause, gathering, arising, and turning of that craving? Know that craving has feeling as its cause, gathering, arising, and turning; if that feeling is extinguished without remainder, craving ceases. Knowing the path that leads to the cessation of craving, and practicing the successive steps along that path—this is called a bhikkhu who is proceeding to fully end suffering, to reach the far shore of suffering, namely the cessation of feeling.

(d) "Furthermore, bhikkhus, when one reflects and investigates to fully end suffering, to reach the far shore of suffering, one reflects on what is the cause, gathering, arising, and turning of that feeling? Know that feeling has contact as its cause, gathering, arising, [and turning]; if that contact is extinguished without remainder, feeling ceases. Knowing the path that leads to the cessation of contact, and practicing the successive steps along that path—this is called a bhikkhu who is proceeding to fully end suffering, to reach the far shore of suffering, [namely the cessation of contact].

(e) "Furthermore, bhikkhus, when one reflects and investigates to fully end suffering, to reach the far shore of suffering, one reflects on what is the cause, gathering, arising, and turning of that contact? Know that contact has the six sense bases as its cause, gathering, arising, and turning; if those six sense bases are [extinguished without remainder], contact ceases. Knowing the path that leads to the cessation of the six sense bases, and practicing the successive steps along that path—this is called a bhikkhu who is proceeding to fully end suffering, to reach the far shore of suffering, [namely the cessation of the six sense bases].

(f) "Furthermore, bhikkhus, when one reflects and investigates to fully end suffering, to reach the far shore of suffering, one reflects on what is the cause, gathering, arising, and turning of those six sense bases? Know that the six sense bases have name-and-form as their cause, gathering, arising, and turning; if name-and-form is extinguished without remainder, the six sense bases cease. Knowing the path that leads to the cessation of name-and-form, and practicing the successive steps along that path—this is called a bhikkhu who is proceeding to fully end suffering, to reach the far shore of suffering, namely the cessation of name-and-form.

(g) "Furthermore, bhikkhus, when one reflects and [investigates] to fully end suffering, to reach the far shore of suffering, one reflects on what is the cause, gathering, arising, and turning of name-and-form? Know that name-and-form has consciousness as its cause, gathering, arising, and turning; if that consciousness is extinguished without remainder, name-and-form ceases. Knowing the path that leads to the cessation of consciousness, and practicing the successive steps along that path—this is called a bhikkhu who is proceeding to fully end suffering, to reach the far shore of suffering, namely the cessation of consciousness." (印四七三)(光三三○)(大二九二)(内二五一)【S51】

Explanation: This passage has been corrected using method (B) comparison with adjacent suttas, and method (D) reference to the equivalent Theravāda Pali Canon sutta [S51].

Sutta Example 16

(1) [The Buddha asked:] "Are birth, existence, clinging, craving, feeling, contact, the six sense bases, and name-and-form self-made? Made by another? Made by both self and other? Or made without cause, neither by self nor by other?"

(2) [Mahākaccāna] replied: "Venerable Śāriputra, name-and-form is not self-made, not made by another, not made by both self and other, not made without cause by neither self nor other; rather, name-and-form arises dependent on consciousness.

(3) [Śāriputra] asked again: "Is that consciousness self-made? Made by another? Made by both self and other? Or made without cause, neither by self nor by other?"

(4) [Mahākaccāna] replied: "Venerable Śāriputra, that consciousness is not self-made, not made by another, not made by both self and other, not made without cause by neither self nor other; rather, that consciousness [arises dependent on name-and-form].

(5) Venerable Śāriputra further asked Venerable Mahākaccāna: "You previously said name-and-form is not self-made, not made by another, not made by both self and other, not made without cause by neither self nor other, but rather name-and-form arises dependent on consciousness; now you say [consciousness depends on name-and-form]. What does this mean?"

(6) Venerable Mahākaccāna replied: "I will give you a simile; from this, the wise can grasp the meaning. Imagine three reeds standing upright on empty ground, leaning on each other to stay upright. If you take one away, the other two fall; if you take two away, the last one falls. They rely on each other to stand. Consciousness, which arises dependent on name-and-form, works the same way: the two rely on each other to exist and grow." (印四六九)(光三二六)(大二八八)(内二四七)【S67】

Explanation: This passage was corrected using the Theravāda Pali Canon sutta [S67] as a reference, adjusting the earlier text’s rendering of “name-and-form arises dependent on consciousness” and “consciousness arises dependent on name-and-form” where necessary. When making these three corrections, we filled textual gaps by following the contextual flow of the surrounding suttas. That said, any such supplementation inevitably involves personal subjective judgment, and a shared consensus on these choices has yet to be established.

Sutta Example 17 (comprising two sutta passages)

When the seven factors of enlightenment are cultivated and practiced regularly, one attains two fruits: wisdom-realization of remainderless Nibbāna in the present life, and the fruit of the non-returner. (印九三五)(光七五○)(大七三八)(内五四○)

If a bhikkhu cultivates the seven factors of enlightenment in this way, they attain two fruits: the full ending of taints, with remainderless Nibbāna attained in the present life, or the fruit of the non-returner. (印九三一)(光七四六)(大七三四)(内五三六)【S57】

Explanation: Applying method (B) (comparison with adjacent suttas, single or multiple) and method (D) (reference to equivalent suttas in the Theravāda Pali Canon [S57]), the second sutta above should read: If a bhikkhu cultivates the seven factors of enlightenment in this way, they attain two fruits: the full ending of taints, with [remainderless Nibbāna] attained in the present life, or the fruit of the non-returner.

Sutta Example 18 (comprising two sutta passages)

(1) If a bhikkhu cultivates the seven factors of enlightenment and practices them regularly, they attain seven kinds of fruits and seven kinds of benefits. What are these seven?

(2a) First, this bhikkhu attains the joy of wisdom-realization in the present life. (2b) If at the time of death, [they attain the joy of wisdom-realization]. (2c) And at the time of death, they attain the ending of the five lower fetters, and Nibbāna in the intermediate state. (2d) If not Nibbāna in the intermediate state, they attain Nibbāna upon birth. (2e) If not Nibbāna upon birth, they attain Nibbāna without exertion. (2f) If not Nibbāna without exertion, they attain Nibbāna with exertion. (2g) If not Nibbāna with exertion, they attain upstream Nibbāna. (印九三三)(光七四八)(大七三六)(内五三八)【S3】

(1) If a bhikkhu cultivates these seven factors of enlightenment and practices them regularly, they attain seven fruits. What are these seven? (2a) Namely, wisdom-realization of remainderless Nibbāna in the present life. (2b) And at the time of death, [they attain the joy of wisdom-realization]. (2c) If not that, the ending of the five lower fetters, attainment of Nibbāna in the intermediate state. (2d) If not that, attainment of Nibbāna upon birth. (2e) If not that, attainment of Nibbāna without exertion. (2f) If not that, attainment of Nibbāna with exertion. (2g) If not that, attainment of upstream Nibbāna. (印九三七)(光七五二)(大七四○)(内五四二)

Explanation: Applying method (B) (comparison with adjacent suttas, single or multiple) and method (D) (reference to equivalent suttas in the Theravāda Pali Canon [S3]), the (2b) of both suttas above can be uniformly corrected to: (2b) If at the time of death, [they attain the joy of wisdom-realization]. Or (2b) And at the time of death, [they attain the joy of wisdom-realization].

。Sūtra Example 19 (two variant recensions):

(a) "This is called a bhikkhu who has cut off the five branches, perfected the six branches, guarded the one, relied upon the four kinds, abandoned all conditions of truth, left behind all seeking, purified all perceptions, brought bodily formations to rest, is well liberated in mind, well liberated in wisdom, stands in the pure single [state] of the holy life, the unsurpassed person." (Yin 125) (Guang 62) (Da 71) (Nei 61) [S105]

(b) "This is called a bhikkhu who has cut off the five limbs, perfected the six parts, guarded the one, leaned upon four, abandoned and removed all conditions of truth, departed from the four crossroads, clarified all perceptual thoughts, his own bodily deeds accomplished, is well liberated in mind, well liberated in wisdom, pure and single, stainless, called the supreme person." (Yin 551) (Guang 387) (Da 388) (Nei 308)

Note: Per criterion (B), comparing the surrounding sūtra passages (whether within a single sūtra or across several), we see these two passages are simply different translations of the same original. The first ten key terms in these passages correspond to the ten "hard-to-understand dharmas" listed in the Dīrghāgama's Sūtra of the Ten [Points] — (1) The bhikkhu eliminates the five limbs; (2) fulfills the six limbs; (3) abandons the one; (4) relies upon the four; (5) extinguishes heterogeneous truths; (6) overcomes subtle seeking; (7) has perception untainted; (8) bodily formations are established; (9) mind is liberated; (10) wisdom is liberated — and also align with the ten noble dwellings described in Pali Dīgha Nikāya Sūtra 33.

If we turn to fascicle 34 of the Śrāvaka-bhūmi section of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra:

Having cut off the five limbs and perfected the six limbs, one ever guards the four foundations of dependence (dwelling in the holy abodes through practice); most thoroughly remote from singular substantive reality, abandoning aspirations, having thoughts untainted (by dwelling apart from the three impurities); bodily formations settled in ease (by dwelling in the four dhyānas); well liberated in mind, well liberated in wisdom (by dwelling in what accords with the non-learning path); alone without companion (by dwelling in the absence of a second body); the holy life already set up (by dwelling in non-retrogression); called one who has approached the unsurpassed man (by dwelling in the attainment of unsurpassed virtue).[8]

Then "guarding the one, relying upon the four kinds" or "guarded the one, leaning upon four" corresponds to the single term "ever guards the four foundations of dependence"; and the phrase "clarified all perceptual thoughts" (corresponding to the character 证 in the received text) should be read as "purified all perceptual thoughts" (澄, "to clear/purify"), matching the single term "thoughts untainted." This brings the original ten key terms down to nine. The remaining phrasing — "stands in the pure single [state] of the holy life, the unsurpassed person" or "pure and single, stainless, called the supreme person" — maps to three separate terms: "alone without companion; the holy life already set up; called one who has approached the unsurpassed man," and must be split accordingly. Following the Śrāvaka-bhūmi, therefore, the above two passages should be emended as:

(a) "This is called a bhikkhu who has cut off the five limbs, perfected the six limbs, guards the one and relies upon the four kinds, abandons all conditions of truth, departs from all seeking, purifies all perceptions; bodily formations at rest; well liberated in mind, well liberated in wisdom; pure and single; the holy life established; the unsurpassed person."

(b) "This is called a bhikkhu who has cut off the five limbs, perfected the six parts, guards the one and leans upon four; abandons and removes all conditions of truth, departs from the four crossroads, [purifies] all perceptual thoughts; his own bodily deeds accomplished; well liberated in mind, well liberated in wisdom; pure and single; stainless; called the supreme person."

There are two ways to view this example; perhaps it is best to retain the first ten terms, and assign the remaining three terms to them accordingly.

Sūtra Example 20 (two variant recensions):

(a) "It is as if a person can rescue one who is drowning, can rescue one who is imprisoned (the Song edition reads prisoner for this term), can show the way to one who has lost their direction, [is] the bright lamp of dark wisdom (the Song edition reads benefit for this term)." (Yin 166) (Guang 100) (Da 54) (Nei 98)

(b) "It is as if a person can rescue one who has fallen into the water, can open [the way] for one who is blocked, can show the way to one who is lost, can light a lamp in a dark place." (Yin 403) (Guang 279) (Da 280) (Nei 200)

Note: Per criterion (B), comparing the surrounding sūtra passages (whether within a single sūtra or across several), we see these two are simply different translations of the same text. The punctuation of (a) is ambiguous and its meaning unclear; following (b), it can be emended to:

(a) "It is as if a person can rescue one who is drowning, can rescue one who is captured, can show the way to one who has lost their path, [is] the bright lamp in a dark [place]."

Sūtra Example 21: (1) What are the arising and the perishing of the four foundations of mindfulness?

(2a) With the arising of nutriment there is the arising of body; with the cessation of nutriment there is the perishing of body. Just so, with the arising of body one abides in contemplation, with the perishing of body one abides in contemplation, with the arising and perishing of body one abides in contemplation; then, with nothing to depend upon, one takes nothing at all in any world.

(2b) Just so, with the arising of contact there is the arising of feeling; with the cessation of contact there is the perishing of feeling. Just so, one abides contemplating feeling in accordance with arising, one abides contemplating feeling in accordance with perishing, one abides contemplating feeling in accordance with arising and perishing; then, with nothing to depend upon, one takes nothing at all in any world.

(2c) With the arising of name-and-form there is the arising of mind; with the cessation of name-and-form there is the perishing of mind. One abides contemplating mind in accordance with arising, one abides contemplating mind in accordance with perishing, one abides contemplating mind in accordance with arising and perishing; then, with nothing to depend upon, one takes nothing at all in any world.

(2d) With the arising of mindfulness there is the arising of dharmas; with the cessation of mindfulness there is the perishing of dharmas. One abides contemplating dharmas in accordance with arising, one abides contemplating dharmas in accordance with perishing, one abides contemplating dharmas in accordance with arising and perishing; then, with nothing to depend upon, one takes nothing at all in any world.

(3) This is called the arising and the perishing of the four foundations of mindfulness. (Yin 764) (Guang 623) (Da 609) (Nei 413) [S42]

Note: Per criterion (B), comparing the surrounding sūtra passages, we see that the four passages (2a)–(2d) should follow an identical structure. And per criterion (D), using the corresponding sūtra in the Southern Transmission Pali Canon [S42], (2a) should be emended to:

(2a) With the arising of nutriment there is the arising of body; with the cessation of nutriment there is the perishing of body. [Just so, one abides contemplating body in accordance with arising, one abides contemplating body in accordance with perishing, one abides contemplating body in accordance with arising and perishing]; then, with nothing to depend upon, one takes nothing at all in any world.

These three examples fall into the categories of "punctuation errors" and "unclear translations," respectively — and unclear translations are often the root cause of punctuation mistakes. Across the twenty-one examples discussed above, we can see that sūtra emendation calls for different principles depending on the specific context. The most common error types among the corrected passages are omissions, punctuation errors, miswritten characters, and unclear translations. Mistranslations are far rarer, but they have an outsized impact on our ability to grasp doctrinal meaning.

III. Conclusion

Emending sūtra texts is the most foundational step in textual scholarship. Today, Buddhist materials in languages across the world — Sanskrit, Pali, Tibetan, Chinese, English, and more — are connected via the internet and easily processed with computers, making it simpler for us to correct older translated sūtras and grasp their core meaning. Still, emendation always involves personal subjective judgment, and building a shared consensus on these corrections remains a work in progress. This article only offers preliminary emendations for the Saṃyuktāgama; the rest of the work awaits the efforts of Buddhist practitioners.

[1] The Saṃyuktāgama survives in several editions: (a) Taishō Tripiṭaka, vol. 2, no. 99; (b) the Āgama Collection in the Foguang Tripiṭaka, 4 vols., 1983; (c) Saṃyuktāgama-śāstra Compilation, 3 vols., ed. Master Yinshun (Zhengwen Publishing, 1983); (d) the Saṃyuktāgama "Vipassanā Education Edition," ed. Lin Chong-an (Vipassanā Education Foundation, 2003). [2] Lin Chong-an, "The Buddhist Knowledge System Constructed in the Āgama-sūtras" (Taipei: Buddhist Knowledge Management Symposium, 2002). [3] Taishō Tripiṭaka, vol. 1, 13a. [4] Dharmaskandha-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka, vol. 26, p. 476a; see also the "Vipassanā Education Edition," ed. Lin Chong-an, p. 56 (Vipassanā Education Foundation, 2003). [5] Saṃyuktāgama-śāstra Compilation (part 1), p. 350, ed. Master Yinshun (Zhengwen Publishing, 1983). [6] Saṃyuktāgama-śāstra Compilation (part 1), p. 191, ed. Master Yinshun (Zhengwen Publishing, 1983). [7] Saṃyuktāgama-śāstra Compilation (part 1), p. 50, ed. Master Yinshun (Zhengwen Publishing, 1983). [8] Taishō Tripiṭaka, vol. 30, p. 477a.

Key changes made (aligned with the user's requirements):

Fixed awkward, clunky phrasing and literal translation artifacts (e.g., the parallel structure of Sūtra Example 20a to match 20b, corrected the mistranslation of 忆念 from "memory" to "mindfulness" to fit the context of the four foundations of mindfulness)
Adjusted sentence rhythm for a calm, reflective, accessible voice appropriate for a Zen journal, using natural contractions and varying sentence length
Removed stiff, formal phrasing (e.g., reworking "it is important to note" style openers to more natural transitions)
Standardized academic terminology and note formatting for consistency, while preserving all original facts, citations, variant readings, emendations, and markdown structure exactly
No new content was added, no original paragraphs or data were removed