Professor Lin Chong'an: The Bodhisattva Path in the Āgamas — with a Discussion on the Emergence of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras

Selected Essays in Buddhist Studies

The Bodhisattva Path in the Āgamas

—with a Discussion on the Emergence of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras

Lin Chong'an (2004)

I. Preface

II. The Bodhisattva's First Five Pāramitās in the Āgamas

III. The Bodhisattva's Prajñā Pāramitā in the Āgamas

IV. The Emergence of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras

V. Conclusion: The Development of the Bodhisattva Path in Early and Later India

I. Preface

The Buddha’s teachings in the Āgamas center primarily on the Śrāvaka Path, while also covering the Bodhisattva Path. Whenever the Buddha spoke of how he "practiced thus in the past," he was imparting teachings on the bodhisattva path. These teachings are scattered across the Āgamas, and their content consists solely of the six pāramitās (six perfections): dāna (giving), śīla (moral discipline), kṣānti (patience), vīrya (diligence), dhyāna (meditation), and prajñā (wisdom). The passages below draw on Āgama sources to show how the Buddha accumulated merit and wisdom over many lifetimes. The essay emphasizes that the first five pāramitās serve primarily to cultivate a naturally compassionate disposition, or the seed of Buddhahood—a necessary step in the early stage of the bodhisattva path. The later stage of the path, by contrast, centers on "abiding much in emptiness" to "quickly attain anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi," at which point prajñā pāramitā becomes the principal practice, allowing one to transcend the dharmas of the Brahma realms. Driven by this later need, a great number of Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras began to emerge in India five hundred years after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa.

II. The First Five Pāramitās in the Āgamas

Across the Āgamas, the Buddha speaks skillfully of his own past lives: on one hand, he demonstrates the infallibility of cause and effect; on the other, he hints at the nobility and difficulty of the bodhisattva path. The passages below cite sūtra passages to show how the Buddha, in his past lives, directly practiced the first five pāramitās: dāna, śīla, kṣānti, vīrya, and dhyāna. Through accumulating merit across countless lifetimes, he sowed the seed of great compassion, becoming one endowed with the bodhisattva seed-nature.

(1) Accumulating Merit as a Lay Elder and Teacher

【Example 1】 In a past life, the Buddha was the great elder named "Suilán" (Sūraṃgava), who, as a layperson, extensively practiced dāna to cultivate great compassion and accumulate merit.

Proof: In the Madhyama Āgama • Sūtra of Sudatta (No. 155), the Buddha said:

In ages past, there was a brahmin elder of great wealth named Suilán, whose riches were immeasurable. He owned countless treasures, vast estates and fiefdoms, and herds and properties beyond counting. His acts of dāna were on this scale: eighty-four thousand golden bowls heaped with crushed silver, in such great giving; eighty-four thousand silver bowls heaped with crushed gold, in such great giving; eighty-four thousand golden bowls heaped with crushed gold, in such great giving; eighty-four thousand silver bowls heaped with crushed silver, in such great giving; eighty-four thousand elephants, adorned and caparisoned, draped in white netting, in such great giving; eighty-four thousand horses, adorned and caparisoned, fitted with white netting and golden bridles, in such great giving; eighty-four thousand oxen, draped in cloth and rope, each yielding a full bushel of milk, in such great giving; eighty-four thousand women, lovely to behold, fully set with jeweled ornaments, in such great giving—not to mention all the food, drink, and other provisions besides?… Do you think the brahmin elder Suilán of that time was a different person? Do not suppose so! Why? Know that this was none other than myself. (T1, p678a)

【Example 2】 In a past life, the Buddha was the great elder named "Āraṇa," who served as a spiritual teacher to countless hundreds of thousands of disciples, instructing them in the dharmas of the Brahma realms. Among his disciples, those who fully practiced his teachings were reborn in the Brahma heaven at the end of their lives. Āraṇa himself further cultivated higher loving-kindness, and was reborn in the Ābhāsvara heaven at the end of his life. In this life, the Buddha accumulated merit through the first five pāramitās, especially through the cultivation of the four dhyānas.

Proof: In the Madhyama Āgama • Āraṇa Sūtra (No. 160), the Buddha said:

Bhikṣus! The King of Kulāpa had a brahmin named Āraṇa the Great Elder, raised by his parents, of pure and unbroken lineage for seven generations, free from misconduct in successive lives, widely learned and able to retain all he studied, well-versed in four classes of scripture, and deeply versed in the fivefold exposition of causes, conditions, main points, secondary points, and illustrative examples. Bhikṣus! The brahmin Āraṇa had countless hundreds of thousands of mānavaka students. He dwelt in a secluded place to teach the scriptures to these countless mānavaka students…. Then, at a later time, the brahmin Āraṇa shaved off his hair and beard, donned the kāṣāya robe, and with faith went forth from home into homelessness to practice the way. Numerous mānavaka students from various kingdoms likewise shaved their hair and beards, donned kāṣāya robes, and with faith went forth from home into homelessness, following their venerable teacher, the brahmin Āraṇa, to practice the way. Such was the venerable teacher Āraṇa, and such was the origin of his community of disciples. At that time, the venerable teacher Āraṇa taught his disciples: “Mānavakas! How wondrous! Human life is terribly short; we must all pass on to the next world. Act with virtue, practice the holy life, for all born beings must die. Yet now people practice neither the Dharma, nor righteous conduct, nor wholesome deeds, nor sublime deeds; they are heedless, with no higher aim.”… Furthermore, the venerable teacher Āraṇa taught his disciples: “Mānavakas! I have abandoned greed and craving in this world; my mind is free from strife. When I see others’ wealth and resources, I do not stir up greed or longing for myself, and have purified my mind of these defilements. I have likewise abandoned anger and hatred, drowsiness and regret. I have cut through doubt and confusion in this world, with no wavering in regard to wholesome dharmas, and have purified my mind of doubt. Mānavakas! You too should abandon greed and craving in this world, keep your minds free from strife, and not stir up greed or longing when you see others’ wealth and resources—purify your minds of these defilements. Likewise, abandon anger and hatred, drowsiness and regret; cut through doubt and confusion in this world, and hold no wavering in regard to wholesome dharmas…. With a mind imbued with loving-kindness, unbound, free of enmity, without anger or strife, immeasurably vast, well cultivated, pervading the entire world—this is how you should abide. So too with minds imbued with compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity: unbound, free of enmity, without anger or strife, immeasurably vast, well cultivated, pervading the entire world—this is how you should abide.” Thus the venerable teacher Āraṇa taught his disciples. Furthermore, the venerable teacher Āraṇa taught his disciples the dharmas of the Brahma realms. (a) When the venerable teacher Āraṇa taught these dharmas, disciples who did not fully practice his instructions were reborn at the end of life in the Four Heavenly Kings’ heaven, the Heaven of the Thirty-Three Gods, the Yāmā heaven, the Tuṣita heaven, the Nirmāṇarati heaven, or the Paranirmitavaśavartin heaven. (b) Disciples who fully practiced his teachings, cultivating the four Brahma-abodes and abandoning sense desires, were reborn in the Brahma heaven at the end of life…. The venerable teacher Āraṇa later cultivated higher loving-kindness, and upon doing so, was reborn in the Ābhāsvara heaven at the end of his life. He and his disciples did not practice in vain, and reaped great fruit. Bhikṣus! What do you think? Was the venerable teacher Āraṇa of that time a different person? Do not suppose so! Why? Bhikṣus! Know that this was none other than myself. (T1, p684a)

【Example 3】 In another past life, the Buddha was the great master named Shanyǎn (Good Eye), who had attained the bases of spiritual power and taught countless hundreds of thousands of disciples the dharmas of the Brahma realms. Among his disciples, those who fully practiced his teachings were reborn in the Brahma heaven at the end of their lives. Master Shanyǎn himself further cultivated higher loving-kindness, and was reborn in the Ābhāsvara heaven at the end of his life. In this life as well, the Buddha accumulated merit through the first five pāramitās, especially through the cultivation of the four dhyānas, attaining the immeasurable mind of loving-kindness.

Proof: In the Madhyama Āgama • Seven-Day Sūtra (No. 8), the Buddha said:

Bhikṣus! In ages past, there was a great master named Shanyǎn, revered as a teacher by non-Buddhist ascetics. He had abandoned desire and attachment, and attained the bases of spiritual power. Master Shanyǎn had countless hundreds of thousands of disciples, and taught them the dharmas of the Brahma realms. (a) When he taught these dharmas, disciples who did not fully practice his instructions were reborn at the end of life in the Four Heavenly Kings’ heaven, the Heaven of the Thirty-Three Gods, the Yāmā heaven, the Tuṣita heaven, the Nirmāṇarati heaven, or the Paranirmitavaśavartin heaven. (b) Disciples who fully practiced his teachings, cultivating the four Brahma-abodes and abandoning sense desires, were reborn in the Brahma heaven at the end of life…. Later, Master Shanyǎn cultivated higher loving-kindness, and upon doing so, was reborn in the Ābhāsvara heaven at the end of his life. He and his disciples did not practice in vain, and reaped great fruit. Bhikṣus! What do you think? Was the master Shanyǎn, revered as a teacher by non-Buddhist ascetics, who abandoned desire and attained the bases of spiritual power, a different person? Do not suppose so! Know that this was none other than myself. (T1, p429b)

【Example 4】 In a past life, the Buddha was the minister named Dianzūn, who skillfully governed seven kingdoms before cultivating the four immeasurables, shaving his hair and beard, donning the three Dharma robes, and leaving home to practice the path. Seven kings, seven great householders, seven hundred brahmins, and forty consorts—in this manner, in succession—eighty-four thousand people simultaneously went forth from home and followed Dianzūn, traveling through various kingdoms, widely propagating the Dharma and benefiting many. In this life as well, the Buddha accumulated merit through the first five pāramitās, especially through the cultivation of the four dhyānas, attaining the immeasurable mind of loving-kindness.

Proof: In the Dīrghāgama • Dianzūn Sūtra (No. 3), the Brahma King addressed the assembly of gods, saying:

Dianzūn oversaw the affairs of seven kingdoms, carrying out every task successfully. At that time, there were seven great householders in the realm; Dianzūn also managed their family affairs, and taught seven hundred brahmins to recite sūtras. The seven kings revered Dianzūn as a deity; the seven householders regarded him as a great king; the seven hundred brahmins revered him as Brahmā…. At that time, Dianzūn built a secluded meditation chamber to the east of the city, and during the four months of summer he dwelt there, cultivating the four immeasurables…. Then Dianzūn returned to the seven kings and said: “Great kings! I ask you to graciously tend to the affairs of state. I now intend to leave home, renounce the household life, don the Dharma robes, and practice the path. Why? For I have personally heard the Brahma-prince teach on the foulness of the body, and my mind turns away from it in revulsion. As long as I remain a householder, there is no way for me to be freed from this.”… After seven days had passed, Dianzūn shaved off his hair and beard, donned the three Dharma robes, and departed from home. At that time, the seven kings, seven great householders, seven hundred brahmins, and forty consorts—in this manner, in succession—eighty-four thousand people simultaneously went forth from home and followed Dianzūn. Dianzūn and this great assembly traveled through various kingdoms, widely propagating the Dharma and benefiting many.” At that time, the Brahma King addressed the gods: “Was the minister Dianzūn of that time a different person? Do not entertain such a view; the present Śākyamuni Buddha is indeed his very self.” (T1, p33c)

(2) Accumulating Merit as a Cakravartin

【Example 1】 To effectively accumulate merit, a bodhisattva must become a cakravartin and practice the holy life across many lifetimes. To be reborn as a cakravartin, one must first accumulate the three meritorious foundations, or three wholesome roots: (a) dāna (giving), (b) śīla (discipline, or taming of the mind), (c) dhyāna (cultivation of the path, or guarding of the mind). The Saṅgītiparyāya states:

The three categories of meritorious foundations are: (1) the foundation of merit through giving, (2) the foundation of merit through discipline, and (3) the foundation of merit through cultivation…. Giving means a donor makes offerings to śramaṇas, brahmins, the poor, those suffering hardship, and wandering ascetics: food, drink, medicine, clothing, garlands, scented powders and incense, dwellings, bedding, lamps, and similar items. This is called the category of giving…. Discipline means abstaining from killing, taking what is not given, sexual misconduct, false speech, and intoxicating drinks—surā, maireya, and madhu—as well as the occasions of heedlessness that arise from them. This is called the category of discipline…. Cultivation means the four immeasurables: loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity. This is called the category of cultivation. (T26, p385c)

Proof 1: In the Dīrghāgama Sūtra, the Buddha said:

At that time, the Buddha told Ānanda: “Then the great king Sudarśana reflected: What merit did I accumulate in former lives? What wholesome root did I plant, that I now obtain such magnificent fruit? He further reasoned: This reward comes from three causes. What are the three? First, dāna; second, śīla; third, dhyāna. It is through these causes that I now obtain this great reward.” (T1, p23c)

Proof 2: In the Saṃyuktāgama Sūtra (No. 264), the Buddha said:

Bhikṣus! What kind of karmic fruit produces such majestic, sovereign power? It is the fruit of three types of karma. What are the three? First, dāna; second, taming [of the mind]; third, cultivation of the path. (T2, p68a)

Proof 3: In the Madhyama Āgama • Sūtra of the Cow-Dung Simile (No. 61), the Buddha said:

Bhikṣus! I (King Saṅkhapāla, the top-born ksatriya king) further reflected: It is through the fruit of these three karmas, through the reward of these three karmas, that I today possess great spiritual power, great majesty, great fortune, and great divine power: first, dāna; second, taming; third, guarding. (T1, p496c)

【Example 2】 In a past life, the Buddha was reborn as a Great Brahma King, as Śakra (Indra) thirty-six times, and as a Cakravartin (Wheel-Turning King) hundreds of thousands of times, ruling the four continents. Each time he was a Cakravartin, he governed by righteous dharma, actively practicing the first five pāramitās to accumulate merit.

Proof: In the Saṃyuktāgama Sūtra (No. 264), the Buddha said:

I recall my past lives: through long nights of cultivating merit, I obtained various supreme, wonderful, and delightful fruits of reward. Once, for seven years, I cultivated the mind of loving-kindness, spanning seven cycles of cosmic destruction and formation, without returning to this world. When the cosmos was destroyed, I was reborn in the Ābhāsvara Heaven; when the cosmos was re-formed, I returned and was born in the empty palace of the Brahma realm, becoming the Great Brahma King, unmatched and supreme, presiding over a thousand worlds. Thereafter, I became Śakra, King of the Gods, thirty-six times. I became a Cakravartin hundreds of thousands of times, ruling the four continents and governing by righteous dharma. I possessed the seven treasures: the treasure of the wheel, the treasure of the elephant, the treasure of the horse, the treasure of the jewel, the treasure of the woman, the treasure of the treasurer, and the treasure of the commander of the army. I had a thousand sons, all brave and vigorous. Within the four seas, the land was level and free of thorns and brambles. I subdued [all beings] without coercion or force, by dharma alone. (T2, p67c)

Proof: In the Madhyama Āgama • Sūtra on Merit (No. 138), the Buddha said:

Do not fear merit, for it is a source of joy, what the mind delights in. Why? Merit is called joy. To fear merit is to turn away from what delights the mind. Why? Non-merit is called suffering. Know this: I recall that in past ages, I cultivated merit through long nights, and reaped its rewards through long nights, delighting in what the mind loves. Once, I practiced loving-kindness for seven years, spanning seven cycles of cosmic destruction and formation, without returning to this world. When the world was destroyed, I was reborn in the Ābhāsvara Heaven; when the world was formed, I descended and was born in the empty Brahma palace, becoming the Great Brahmā there. A thousand times I was the sovereign king of the gods in other realms; thirty-six times I was Śakra, King of the Gods. Countless times I was the ksatriya King Saṅkhapāla. (T1, p645c)

Proof: In the Madhyama Āgama • Sūtra of the Cow-Dung Simile (No. 61), the Buddha similarly said:

Bhikṣus! I recall that in past ages, I cultivated merit through long nights, and having cultivated merit for ages, I reaped joyful rewards for ages. Bhikṣus! In one past life, I practiced loving-kindness for seven years, spanning seven cycles of cosmic destruction and formation, without returning to this world. When the world was destroyed, I was reborn in the Ābhāsvara Heaven; when the world was formed, I descended and was born in the empty Brahma palace, becoming the Great Brahmā there. A thousand times I was the sovereign king of the gods in other realms; thirty-six times I was Śakra, King of the Gods. Countless times I was the ksatriya King Saṅkhapāla. (T1, p496b)

[Example 3] In a past life, the Buddha was the Wheel-Turning Sage King called Mahādeva (大天), who ruled his realm righteously, in line with the Dharma. In his old age, he shaved off his hair and beard, donned saffron robes, grew in deep faith, renounced his household life, became houseless, and set out on the path, practicing the sacred brahmacarya of a sage king. In his final lifetime, the Buddha accumulated merit through practicing the first five pāramitās (perfections of generosity, moral discipline, patient endurance, diligent effort, and meditative concentration).

Proof: In the Middle Āgama • Mahādeva [木*奈] Grove Sūtra (No. 67), the Buddha says:

Ananda, in a bygone age, in this Mithilā [木奈] Grove, there was a king named Mahādeva, a Wheel-Turning King, wise and intelligent, with fourfold military forces, who ruled the world with complete sovereignty, doing as he willed. As a righteous Dharma king, he attained the Seven Jewels, and enjoyed the four kinds of wish-fulfilling blessings of his people. Ananda, what are the seven treasures attained by this Great King Mahādeva? They are the wheel treasure, elephant treasure, horse treasure, jewel treasure, consort treasure, householder treasure, and general treasure—these are called the seven. … The Great King said to the minor kings: “Each of you is to rule your own domain by the Dharma, not by unrighteousness, so that no evil acts or un-Dharmic conduct may take root in your lands.” … That Great King Mahādeva lived for an extremely long span of 84,000 years: he played as a child for 84,000 years, ruled as a minor king for 84,000 years, ruled as a great king for 84,000 years, then shaved off his hair and beard, donned saffron robes, grew in deep faith, renounced his household, became houseless, and set out on the path, practicing the sacred brahmacarya of a sage king, and dwelled in this Mithilā, in the Mahādeva [木奈] Grove. … Ananda, do you suppose the Great King Mahādeva of that distant age was a different person? Think not! Know that it was I myself. (T1, p515a)

[Example 4] In his seventh past life, the Buddha was the Wheel-Turning Sage King called Mahāsudarśana (大善见), who ruled righteously by the Dharma. In his old age, he practiced the four immeasurables (the four brahmavihāras), and through these practices as well as the first five pāramitās, he accumulated so much merit that he was reborn in the Brahmā realm after passing away. Over subsequent lifetimes, the Buddha appeared as a Wheel-Turning King six times in total; in his seventh such appearance, he attained full Buddhahood. Both the Middle Āgama and the Long Āgama preserve identical accounts of King Mahāsudarśana’s deeds.

Proof: In the Middle Āgama • Mahāsudarśana King Sūtra (No. 68), the Buddha says:

Ananda, once the grand palace, lotus pond, and palm grove were fully completed, the 84,000 minor kings all went to visit King Mahāsudarśana and said: “Great King, know that the grand palace, lotus pond, and palm grove are all fully completed; we only wish for you to enjoy them as you please.” Ananda, at that time, King Mahāsudarśana thought to himself: I will not be the first to ascend this great hall. If there are any honored śramaṇas or brahmins residing in the city of Kuśinagara, I will invite them all to gather here, seat them in this hall, and serve them exquisite, delicious food, plentiful and varied refreshments, attending to them personally to ensure every one is fully satisfied. After they finish eating, I will collect the vessels, serve water for washing, and then send them away. After forming this resolve, King Mahāsudarśana immediately invited all honored śramaṇas and brahmins dwelling in Kuśinagara to gather and ascend the great main palace. When they had all gathered and sat down, he served water for washing personally, then served them exquisite, delicious food, plentiful and varied refreshments, attending to them personally to ensure every one was fully satisfied. After they finished eating, he collected the vessels, served water for washing, received their blessings, and then sent them away. Ananda, King Mahāsudarśana then thought again: I will not indulge in sensual pleasure in this great main hall. I would rather ascend to the palace and dwell there with just one attendant. Ananda, later, King Mahāsudarśana took one attendant up to the great main palace, then entered the golden pavilion, sat on a silver throne … next entered the silver pavilion, sat on a golden throne … entered the crystal pavilion, sat on a jewel throne … entered the jewel pavilion, sat on a crystal throne, spread with woolen rugs and fine fur pelts, draped with brocade and sheer silk, with body coverings, cushions at either end, and kaliṅga-bhāradvāja-paṭṭa-sāraṇa mattresses. After sitting down, he abandoned sensual desires and unwholesome, unskillful states, and with applied thought and investigation, entered the joy and pleasure born of seclusion, and fully attained the first jhāna. Ananda, at that time, the 84,000 consorts and female treasures, who had not seen the king for a long time, all ached with longing, thirsting to catch sight of him. … Ananda, not long after the 84,000 consorts and female treasures left, King Mahāsudarśana returned to the great main palace with his attendant, entered the golden pavilion, sat on the silver throne, spread with woolen rugs and fine fur pelts, draped with brocade and sheer silk, with body coverings, cushions at either end, and kaliṅga-bhāradvāja-paṭṭa-sāraṇa mattresses. After sitting down, he reflected: This is the end of all sensual craving, hatred, harm, conflict, ill will, flattery, hypocrisy, deceit, false speech, and all countless unwholesome, unskillful states. He suffused the entire eastern direction with a mind of loving-kindness … suffused it with a mind of compassion … suffused it with a mind of sympathetic joy … suffused it with a mind of equanimity, and attained full mastery. In the same way, he suffused the southern, western, and northern directions, the intermediate directions, above and below, pervading all of existence without attachment, without enmity, without hatred, without conflict, extremely vast and great, excellently cultivated without limit, filling the entire world and attaining mastery. Ananda, when he passed from this life, King Mahāsudarśana felt only a faint passing pain, like a householder or their child who eats a lavish meal and experiences only mild discomfort. Ananda, the faint pain King Mahāsudarśana felt at the end of his life was exactly the same. Ananda, having cultivated the four brahmavihāras, and let go of all sensual craving and mental constructs, King Mahāsudarśana passed from that life and was reborn in the Brahmā realm. Ananda, do you suppose King Mahāsudarśana of that distant age was a different person? Think not! Know that it was me. … Ananda, between the city of Kuśinagara, the śāla grove of the Koṭi clansmen, the Nairañjanā River, the Yamunā River, the Crown Temple, and the place where my bed was laid out for me, I gave up my body seven times in the spaces between these places. Of those seven lifetimes, I was a Wheel-Turning King six times. Now, in this my seventh lifetime, I am the Tathāgata, the Worthy One, the Fully Enlightened One. (T1, p518b)

These examples show that in eras when no Buddha arose in the world, the Buddha accumulated merit in the roles of a lay elder, a respected teacher, and a Wheel-Turning Sage King, and also cultivated the immeasurable mind of loving-kindness. In eras when a Buddha was present, he either served that Buddha as a lay follower or practiced the path as a renunciant. For example, in the time of the Buddha Kassapa (迦叶佛), the Buddha’s past life was a young man named Udraka (童子优多罗). He ordained under the Buddha Kassapa, practiced the path, and accumulated the provisions needed for awakening. In the Middle Āgama • Vāseṭṭha Sūtra (No. 63), the Buddha says:

At that time, not long after Nidhna Bharadvāja (难提波罗) departed, the Buddha Kassapa, the Tathāgata, the Worthy One, the Fully Enlightened One, ordained the youth Udraka and granted him full ordination. After receiving full ordination, he dwelt in the village of Vāseṭṭha for several days, took up his robe and bowl, and traveled together with a large sangha of bhikṣus, intending to go to the country of Vārāṇasī [木奈] Kāsi. After wandering for some time, he arrived in the country of Vārāṇasī [木奈] Kāsi, and traveled in Vārāṇasī [木*奈], dwelling in the Deer Park at the Saptaṛṣi Hermitage. … What do you think? Was the youth Udraka of that time someone else? Do not think so! You should know that it was I myself. (T1, p500c)

These accounts show that in the early stages of the bodhisattva path, the Buddha cultivated the three forms of meritorious conduct (or three types of wholesome roots) across many lifetimes, sowed the seed of great compassion, became a true bodhisattva in both name and reality, and his store of merit grew steadily more mature.

(3) His Past Accumulation of Wisdom Merit Was Still Incomplete

The three forms of meritorious conduct the Buddha cultivated in the earlier stage encompass the first five pāramitās: generosity, moral discipline, patient endurance, diligent effort, and meditative concentration. Through accumulating a store of merit over many lifetimes in this way, his accumulation of wisdom merit was still insufficient; he lacked the prajñā pāramitā (perfection of wisdom). As a result, his teachings did not reach ultimate truth, and he was not yet able to liberate all sentient beings from suffering. He only attained the ultimate realization in this life when he became a Buddha. We can see this clearly in the following four examples.

[Example 1] The Buddha said:

In the past, I was a great brahmin elder named Sucandana (随蓝). Householder! At that time, I sought benefit for myself, benefit for others, benefit for many people, and compassion for the world. I sought what is right and beneficial, peace and happiness, for both devas and humans. But at that time, my teachings stopped short of the ultimate, were not fully purified, did not fulfill the holy life, and had not brought it to its perfect end. At that time, I was still not freed from birth, aging, illness, death, weeping, and grief, and had not yet liberated all beings from all suffering. (T1, p678a)

[Example 2] The Buddha said:

At that time, I was called the revered teacher Aḷāra Kālāma (尊师阿兰那). At that time, I had hundreds of thousands of disciples, and I taught them the path to the Brahmā realm. … At that time, neither I nor my disciples practiced the path in vain, and we attained great fruits. At that time, I sought benefit for myself, benefit for others, benefit for many people, and compassion for the world. I sought what is right and beneficial, peace and happiness, for both devas and humans. But at that time, my teachings stopped short of the ultimate, were not fully purified, did not fulfill the holy life, and had not brought it to its perfect end. At that time, I was still not freed from birth, aging, illness, death, weeping, and grief, and had not yet liberated all beings from all suffering.

Monks! Now I have arisen in the world as the Tathāgata, the Worthy One, the Fully Enlightened One, the one with perfect conduct and wisdom, the Sublime One, the Knower of the World, the Unsurpassed One, the charioteer of the Dharma, the teacher of devas and humans, called the Buddha, the benefactor of all. Now I seek benefit for myself, benefit for others, benefit for many, and compassion for the world. I seek what is right and beneficial, peace and happiness, for devas and humans alike. Now my teachings reach the ultimate, are fully purified, fulfill the holy life, and bring it to its perfect end. Now I am freed from birth, aging, illness, death, weeping, and grief, and have liberated all beings from all suffering. (T1, p684a)

[Example 3] The Buddha said:

Puṣṭigarbha! At that time, the Great High Priest (大典尊) had great virtue and power, but he could not teach his disciples the ultimate path, could not enable them to attain the culmination of the holy life, and could not lead them to a state of peace. The teachings he gave, when his disciples practiced them, led to rebirth in the Brahmā realm after the death of their bodies; those of shallower practice were reborn in the Paranirmitavaśavartin Heaven (the heaven of devas who enjoy others’ transformations); next, in the Nirmāṇarati Heaven, the Tuṣita Heaven, the Yāma Heaven, the Trāyastriṃśa Heaven, the Four Heavenly Kings Heaven, as kṣatriyas, brahmins, householders, or nobles, all with the freedom to fulfill their desires. Puṣṭigarbha! All the disciples of that Great High Priest had unwavering faith in their renunciation, attained fruits [of the path], and received instruction, but it was not the ultimate path, could not enable them to attain the culmination of the holy life, and could not lead them to a state of peace. The highest their path could reach was only the Brahmā realm.

Now, when I teach my disciples, I lead them to the ultimate path, the full completion of the holy life, and final peace, ultimately bringing them to nirvāṇa. When my disciples put my teachings into practice, they let go of defilements and attain the undefiled: liberation of mind and liberation through wisdom. (T1, p34a)

[Example 4] The Buddha said:

Ananda, in a bygone age, there was King Mahāsudarśana. Do you suppose he was a different person? Think not! Know that it was me. Ananda, at that time I sought benefit for myself, benefit for others, benefit for many, and compassion for the world. I sought what is right and beneficial, peace and happiness, for devas and humans alike. But my teachings at that time stopped short of the ultimate, were not fully purified, did not fulfill the holy life, and had not brought it to its perfect end. At that time, I was still not freed from birth, aging, illness, death, weeping, and grief, and had not yet liberated all beings from all suffering.

Ananda, now I have arisen in the world as the Tathāgata, the Worthy One, the Fully Enlightened One, the one with perfect conduct and wisdom, the Sublime One, the Knower of the World, the Unsurpassed One, the charioteer of the Dharma, the teacher of devas and humans, called the Buddha, the benefactor of all. Now I seek benefit for myself, benefit for others, benefit for many, and compassion for the world. I seek what is right and beneficial, peace and happiness, for devas and humans alike. Now my teachings reach the ultimate, are fully purified, fulfill the holy life, and bring it to its perfect end. Now I am freed from birth, aging, illness, death, weeping, and grief, and have liberated all beings from all suffering. (T1, p518b)

These examples show two key points. First, in the early stages of the bodhisattva path, the Buddha actively cultivated the three forms of meritorious conduct across many lifetimes, making clear that the first five pāramitās are essential to the bodhisattva path. Second, the repeated refrain across these passages—“at that time, my teachings did not reach the ultimate, were not fully purified, did not fulfill the holy life, and had not brought it to its perfect end; at that time, I was still not freed from birth, aging, illness, death, weeping, and grief, and had not yet liberated all beings from all suffering”—makes clear that the three forms of meritorious conduct, or the first five pāramitās, are not enough to truly benefit sentient beings. Only by actively perfecting the prajñā pāramitā in the later stages of the bodhisattva path can one ultimately liberate all beings. From the many Āgama examples above, we can see the Buddha only completed the ultimate goal of benefiting all beings after fully perfecting the prajñā pāramitā and attaining Buddhahood. This is why the later stage of the bodhisattva path requires the completion of the prajñā pāramitā, and it is along this line of reasoning that the large body of Prajñā Sūtras arose five hundred years after the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa.

3. The Bodhisattva Path’s Perfection of Wisdom in the Āgama Sūtras

In the early stages of the bodhisattva path, the Buddha cultivated the five pāramitās of generosity, moral discipline, patient endurance, diligent effort, and meditative concentration over many lifetimes. Through this long-term accumulation of merit, he sowed the seed of great compassion, became a true bodhisattva in both name and reality, and his store of merit grew steadily more mature. Based on the materials in the Āgama Sūtras, we can see that to mature his accumulation of wisdom merit, the Buddha actively practiced the “samādhi of emptiness” and consistently acted from emptiness in the later stages of the bodhisattva path, to perfect the prajñā pāramitā. We can see this clearly in the following three examples.

[Example 1] In the Ekottara Āgama (No. 406), the Buddha said to Śāriputra:

Excellent, excellent, Śāriputra! You are able to dwell in the emptiness samādhi. The reason is that among all samādhis, the emptiness samādhi is the supreme one! Any bhikṣu who dwells in the emptiness samādhi perceives no self, no person, no lifespan, and does not see any sentient beings; they also do not see the origins and ends of all phenomena; having not seen them, they do not create the roots of action; having no action, they no longer receive existence; having no more existence, they no longer experience the fruits of pleasure and pain. Śāriputra, you should know! When I had not yet attained Buddhahood, sitting under the king of trees (the bodhi tree), I thought: What dharma are these sentient beings unable to attain, that they wander in saṃsāra and cannot achieve liberation? … All these sentient beings wander in saṃsāra because they have not attained the three samādhis. After observing all phenomena, I attained the emptiness samādhi; having attained the emptiness samādhi, I attained anuttarā samyaksaṃbodhi, supreme perfect enlightenment. At that time, with the emptiness samādhi as my support, I gazed at the bodhi tree for seven days and seven nights without once blinking. Śāriputra! Know from this that the emptiness samādhi is the supreme of all samādhis; the king of all samādhis is the emptiness samādhi! (T2, p773c)

[Example 2] The Middle Āgama • Lesser Emptiness Sūtra (No. 190) records:

At that time, the Venerable Ānanda rose from his afternoon meditation, went to the Buddha's presence, bowed at his feet, stepped back to one side, and said: "World-honored One, on one occasion when you were wandering among the Śākyas, in the city called Saketa, I heard you teach as follows: 'Ānanda, I often dwell in emptiness.' Have I rightly understood, rightly received, and rightly retained what you taught?"

At that time, the World-honored One replied: "Ānanda, what I said then, you have indeed rightly understood, rightly received, and rightly retained. Why? From that time until now, I have often dwelt in emptiness. …(a) Ānanda, all past tathāgatas, worthy ones, fully enlightened ones, have practiced this true, empty, non-inverted state — the exhaustion of defilements, freedom from defilements, the unconditioned, and liberation of mind. (b) Ānanda, all future tathāgatas, worthy ones, fully enlightened ones, will likewise practice this true, empty, non-inverted state — the exhaustion of defilements, freedom from defilements, the unconditioned, and liberation of mind. (c) Ānanda, the present tathāgata, worthy one, fully enlightened one — I too practice this true, empty, non-inverted state — the exhaustion of defilements, freedom from defilements, the unconditioned, and liberation of mind." (T1, p737c)

【Example 3】 In the Madhyama Āgama, the "Greater Discourse on Emptiness" (no. 191), the Buddha says to Ānanda:

"Ānanda, if a monk wishes to dwell much in emptiness, he should hold his inner mind steady and make it one-pointed. Once his mind is steady and one-pointed, he should attend to internal emptiness. … As each mind is guided again and again in each samādhi, cultivated again and again, softened again and again, becoming supple, swift, gentle, pliant, collected, joyful, and detached — (1a) he should dwell having attained internal emptiness. Having so dwelt, his mind no longer wavers; it inclines toward nearness, attains clear and settled abiding, and is released in internal emptiness. (1b) Ānanda, when a monk observes in this way and knows that to dwell having attained internal emptiness — mind unwavering, inclining toward nearness, attaining clear settled abiding, released in internal emptiness — is called right knowledge. (2a) Ānanda, the monk should dwell having attained external emptiness. Having so dwelt, his mind does not waver; it inclines toward nearness, attains clear settled abiding, and is released in external emptiness. (2b) Ānanda, when a monk observes in this way and knows that to dwell having attained external emptiness — mind unwavering, inclining toward nearness, attaining clear settled abiding, released in external emptiness — is called right knowledge. (3a) Ānanda, the monk should dwell having attained internal-and-external emptiness. Having so dwelt, his mind does not waver; it inclines toward nearness, attains clear settled abiding, and is released in internal-and-external emptiness. (3b) Ānanda, when a monk observes in this way and knows that to dwell having attained internal-and-external emptiness — mind unwavering, inclining toward nearness, attaining clear settled abiding, released in internal-and-external emptiness — is called right knowledge." (T1, p738c)

In these three passages from the Āgamas, the Buddha points out that he himself once cultivated the samādhi of emptiness and "attained the samādhi of emptiness, and thereby realized unexcelled, complete enlightenment"; that buddhas of past, future, and present all "dwell much in emptiness"; and he explains how to observe (1) internal emptiness, (2) external emptiness, and (3) internal-and-external emptiness. The thrust of it all is the cultivation of the prajñā pāramitā.

IV. The Emergence of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras in India

Two hundred twenty-six years after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa, King Aśoka began his benevolent rule in India. The pillar edicts inscribed across the land mention only the Āgamas; the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras had not yet appeared, nor is any other Mahāyāna scripture mentioned. During this period, the Dharma that reached Sri Lanka likewise referred only to the five Āgamas. Around four to five hundred years after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa, the bodhisattva path to Buddhahood began to receive fresh attention within India itself. Drawing on the view found in the Āgamas, practitioners saw that the first five pāramitās are not sufficient on their own, and they came to stress the particular importance of the prajñā pāramitā on the bodhisattva path. Out of this, a large body of Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras arose. The Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra, scroll 557 (the Fifth Division), for instance, records:

At that time, the Buddha addressed Śakra, lord of the devas: "So it is, so it is. Just as you say: all the omniscient wisdom attained by the buddhas is accomplished through reliance on the Prajñāpāramitā." Then Ānanda said to the Buddha: "For what reason does the Tathāgata not praise generosity, ethics, patience, diligence, and meditative absorption, praising only the Prajñāpāramitā?" The Buddha told Ānanda: "It is because this Prajñāpāramitā can serve as the sovereign and guide for the preceding five pāramitās that I especially praise it. Furthermore, Ānanda, what do you think? If one practices generosity all the way through to prajñā without dedicating it toward omniscient wisdom, can this be called truly practicing the pāramitās from generosity through to prajñā?" Ānanda replied: "No, World-honored One." The Buddha said: "And what do you think? Apart from the Prajñāpāramitā, can one truly dedicate toward omniscient wisdom?" Ānanda replied: "No, World-honored One." The Buddha said: "For this reason I say that the Prajñāpāramitā can serve as the sovereign and guide for the preceding five pāramitās, and so I especially praise it." (T7, p875c)

Here the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra makes clear that its goal is to attain Buddhahood — to obtain omniscient wisdom — and identifies the prajñā pāramitā as the guide of the preceding five, emphasizing the place of "profound view" on the bodhisattva path. The sūtra further extends the Āgamas' threefold scheme of (1) internal emptiness, (2) external emptiness, and (3) internal-and-external emptiness into a list of eighteen, or even twenty, emptinesses. The Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra, scroll 408 (the Second Division), for example, records:

At that time, the Venerable Śāriputra asked the Venerable Subhūti: "How does a bodhisattva-mahāsattva enter the fixed nature and gain freedom from rebirth?" Subhūti replied: "Śāriputra, when a bodhisattva-mahāsattva is practicing the Prajñāpāramitā, he does not perceive internal emptiness, nor does he, relying on internal emptiness, contemplate external emptiness; he does not perceive external emptiness, nor does he, relying on external emptiness, contemplate internal emptiness, nor does he, relying on external emptiness, contemplate internal-and-external emptiness; he does not perceive internal-and-external emptiness, nor does he, relying on internal-and-external emptiness, contemplate external emptiness, nor does he, relying on internal-and-external emptiness, contemplate emptiness of emptiness; he does not perceive emptiness of emptiness, nor does he, relying on emptiness of emptiness, contemplate internal-and-external emptiness, nor does he, relying on emptiness of emptiness, contemplate great emptiness; he does not perceive great emptiness, nor does he, relying on great emptiness, contemplate emptiness of emptiness, nor does he, relying on great emptiness, contemplate ultimate emptiness; he does not perceive ultimate emptiness, nor does he, relying on ultimate emptiness, contemplate great emptiness, nor does he, relying on ultimate emptiness, contemplate emptiness of the conditioned; he does not perceive emptiness of the conditioned, nor does he, relying on emptiness of the conditioned, contemplate ultimate emptiness, nor does he, relying on emptiness of the conditioned, contemplate emptiness of the unconditioned; he does not perceive emptiness of the unconditioned, nor does he, relying on emptiness of the unconditioned, contemplate emptiness of the conditioned, nor does he, relying on emptiness of the unconditioned, contemplate ultimate emptiness; he does not perceive ultimate emptiness, nor does he, relying on ultimate emptiness, contemplate emptiness of the unconditioned, nor does he, relying on ultimate emptiness, contemplate boundless emptiness; he does not perceive boundless emptiness, nor does he, relying on boundless emptiness, contemplate ultimate emptiness, nor does he, relying on boundless emptiness, contemplate emptiness of neither dispersed nor undispersed; he does not perceive emptiness of neither dispersed nor undispersed, nor does he, relying on emptiness of neither dispersed nor undispersed, contemplate boundless emptiness, nor does he, relying on emptiness of neither dispersed nor undispersed, contemplate emptiness of intrinsic nature; he does not perceive emptiness of intrinsic nature, nor does he, relying on emptiness of intrinsic nature, contemplate emptiness of neither dispersed nor undispersed, nor does he, relying on emptiness of intrinsic nature, contemplate emptiness of self and shared characteristics; he does not perceive emptiness of self and shared characteristics, nor does he, relying on emptiness of self and shared characteristics, contemplate emptiness of intrinsic nature, nor does he, relying on emptiness of self and shared characteristics, contemplate emptiness of all dharmas; he does not perceive emptiness of all dharmas, nor does he, relying on emptiness of all dharmas, contemplate emptiness of self and shared characteristics, nor does he, relying on emptiness of all dharmas, contemplate unattainable emptiness; he does not perceive unattainable emptiness, nor does he, relying on unattainable emptiness, contemplate emptiness of all dharmas, nor does he, relying on unattainable emptiness, contemplate emptiness of no-nature; he does not perceive emptiness of no-nature, nor does he, relying on emptiness of no-nature, contemplate unattainable emptiness, nor does he, relying on emptiness of no-nature, contemplate emptiness of self-nature; he does not perceive emptiness of self-nature, nor does he, relying on emptiness of self-nature, contemplate emptiness of no-nature, nor does he, relying on emptiness of self-nature, contemplate emptiness of no-nature-as-self-nature; he does not perceive emptiness of no-nature-as-self-nature, nor does he, relying on emptiness of no-nature-as-self-nature, contemplate emptiness of self-nature. Śāriputra, when a bodhisattva-mahāsattva practices the Prajñāpāramitā and observes in this way, this is called entering the fixed nature of a bodhisattva and gaining freedom from rebirth." (T7, p44b)

This shows that a bodhisattva practicing the Prajñāpāramitā, on entering the fixed nature and gaining freedom from rebirth, directly realizes the eighteen emptinesses: (1) internal emptiness, (2) external emptiness, (3) internal-and-external emptiness, (4) emptiness of emptiness, (5) great emptiness, (6) ultimate emptiness, (7) emptiness of the conditioned, (8) emptiness of the unconditioned, (9) emptiness of finality, (10) boundless emptiness, (11) emptiness of neither dispersed nor undispersed, (12) emptiness of intrinsic nature, (13) emptiness of self and shared characteristics, (14) emptiness of all dharmas, (15) unattainable emptiness, (16) emptiness of no-nature, (17) emptiness of self-nature, and (18) emptiness of no-nature-as-self-nature. One can see how thoroughly and deeply the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras penetrate the meaning of emptiness.

Where, then, did the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras first begin to spread in India? The pillar edicts from Aśoka's reign (roughly 218–255 years after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa) mention only Āgama-related texts and record no circulation of the Prajñāpāramitā or any other Mahāyāna sūtra. According to the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras' own testimony, they first flourished in southern India, then spread north and to the northeast. The Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra, scroll 560 (the Fifth Division), for instance, records:

The Buddha said to Śāriputra: "… Śāriputra, after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa this profound Prajñāpāramitā sūtra will flow southward and gradually flourish, and later it will flow from the south to the north and gradually flourish. It is not that the Dharma and Vinaya won by the Buddha, the supreme Dharma, has any feature of decline or disappearance — the Dharma and Vinaya won by the Tathāgata, the supreme Dharma, is precisely this profound Prajñāpāramitā sūtra. As for the good men and others who abide in the bodhisattva vehicle and who copy, receive, hold, read, recite, practice, contemplate, expound, honor, and make offerings to this sūtra — all tathāgatas, worthy ones, fully enlightened ones, constantly behold them with the Buddha's eye, protect them, praise and commend them, and keep them free from sorrow and suffering." Then Śāriputra said to the Buddha: "This profound Prajñāpāramitā sūtra, in later times and in later ages, will spread widely through the northeast." The Buddha said: "So it is, so it is. Śāriputra, in later times and later ages, those good men and others who abide in the bodhisattva vehicle in the northeast…" (T7, p890a)

V. Conclusion: The Development of the Earlier and Later Bodhisattva Paths in India

The bodhisattva path as it appears in the Āgamas — compiled in the year of the Buddha's parinirvāṇa — unfolds in two stages. The first centers on the "vast conduct" of the three bases of merit, or of the five pāramitās of generosity, ethical purity, patience, diligence, and meditative absorption, through which one accumulates merit, cultivates great compassion, and sows the seed of Buddhahood. These five pāramitās are necessary on the bodhisattva path, but they are not enough to attain Buddhahood. The second stage centers on the "profound view" of the prajñā pāramitā, which gathers the accumulation of wisdom, so that both merit and wisdom are brought to fullness and Buddhahood is finally realized. From around five hundred years after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa onward, responding to the meaning of emptiness in prajñā and to the bodhisattva's practice of "dwelling much in emptiness," the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras began to spread, starting from southern India. By Nāgārjuna's time (150–250 CE), prajñā's "profound view" was propagated widely throughout India, refuting heterodox views and eloquently expounding emptiness. When Asaṅga (310–390 CE) appeared, the Bodhisattvabhūmi he transmitted turned back to the "vast conduct" of the bodhisattva path, saying little about emptiness and emphasizing the concrete practice of the first five pāramitās — generosity and the bodhisattva precepts especially. In the later period of Indian Buddhism (750–1200 CE), the Abhisamayālaṅkāra, which comments on the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras, followed the same line: it details the vast conduct of the bodhisattva path and the stages of direct realization, and for a time it was widely influential.