Professor Lin Chong'an: The Essence of the Dharmaskandha

Lin Chong-an

(Faguang Magazine, Issue 235, 2009)

I. Preface

The Abhidharma Piṭaka has its roots, according to the Saṃyuktavastu section of the Sarvāstivāda Vinaya, in the year of the Buddha's parinirvāṇa. After the Sūtra and Vinaya Piṭakas had been compiled, Mahākāśyapa reflected that "people in later ages will be of little wisdom and dull faculties; they'll cling to the letter and miss the deeper meaning." He accordingly drafted a mātṛkā — a kind of outline or "matrix" — of the Sūtras and Vinaya, which was handed down. At the same time, the explanations of the sūtras offered by great disciples such as Śāriputra, Maudgalyāyana, and Kātyāyana were transmitted by their own followers. These expositions of sūtra meaning seeded what eventually grew into the Abhidharma Piṭaka.

About four hundred years after the Buddha's parinirvāṇa, seven treatises were circulating in the regions where the Sarvāstivāda school was active: (1) the Saṅgītiparyāya, in twenty fascicles, by Śāriputra; (2) the Dharmaskandha, in twenty fascicles, by Maudgalyāyana; (3) the Prajñapti, by Kātyāyana; (4) the Vijñānakāya, in sixteen fascicles, by Devaśarmā; (5) the Prakaraṇa, in sixteen fascicles, by Vasumitra; (6) the Dhātukāya, in three fascicles, also by Vasumitra; and (7) the Jñānaprasthāna, in twenty fascicles, by Kātyāyanīputra. All but the Prajñapti were rendered into Chinese during the Tang by the monk Xuanzang. Around six hundred years after the Buddha's passing, the school compiled the Mahāvibhāṣā in two hundred fascicles — a foundational śrāvaka treatise of the Northern Transmission — and Xuanzang translated this too.

The Dharmaskandha we are concerned with here was prepared by the Buddha's great disciple Maudgalyāyana, who chose twenty-one representative sūtras from the Āgama collections and expounded them; his later followers gathered the exposition into the treatise we have. It is a substantial commentary on the Buddhist sūtras, preserved in the Taishō Tripiṭaka (Volume 26, No. 1537). What follows introduces what it contains.

II. A Glance at the Contents

The Dharmaskandha draws twenty-one sūtras from the Āgama and arranges them under twenty-one chapter headings:

1. Śikṣāpada chapter; 2. Srotāpatti-aṅga chapter; 3. Avetyaprasāda chapter; 4. Śramaṇa-phala chapter; 5. Mārga-gamanīya chapter; 6. Ārya-vaṃśa chapter. These first six center on śīla (ethical discipline).

2. Sammappadhāna chapter; 8. Ṛddhipāda chapter; 9. Smṛtyupasthāna chapter; 10. Ārya-satya chapter; 11. Dhyāna chapter; 12. Apramāṇa chapter; 13. Ārūpya chapter; 14. Samādhi-bhāvanā chapter. These eight center on samādhi (concentration).

3. Bodhyaṅga chapter; 16. Vastu-miśraka chapter; 17. Indriya chapter; 18. Āyatana chapter; 19. Skandha chapter; 20. Bahudhātuka chapter; 21. Pratītyasamutpāda chapter. These last seven center on prajñā (wisdom).

Taken together, the chapters lay out the essence of the Three Trainings — śīla, samādhi, and prajñā.

III. An Illustrative Passage

To get a feel for the Dharmaskandha, let's take Chapter 9, on the Smṛtyupasthāna (Foundations of Mindfulness).

[1] The treatise begins by quoting the Sūtra on the Four Foundations of Mindfulness:

(01) At one time, the Bhagavān was staying at Śrāvastī, in the Jetavana grove of Anāthapiṇḍika.

(02) There the World-honored One addressed the assembly of bhikṣus: "I shall expound for you, in brief, the practice of the four foundations of mindfulness."

(3a) It is this: a bhikṣu abides contemplating the body in the body — with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress.

(3b) He abides contemplating the body as it appears outside — with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress.

(3c) He abides contemplating the body as it appears both within and without — with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress.

(04) The detailed exposition for feelings, mind, and dharmas — within, without, and both — is likewise.

(5a) This is the present practice of the four foundations of mindfulness.

(5b) The practice of past and future bhikṣus should be understood in the same way.

[2] The treatise then unpacks "body-mindfulness" (kāya-smṛtyupasthāna) in detail. Beginning with "body-mindfulness" as applied to the "internal body," it sets out three modes of contemplation:

How does one abide contemplating the body within the internal body, with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress?

"Internal body" means one's own body, as it currently exists in one's continuum, obtained and not lost.

"Contemplating the body within the internal body":

〔1〕 A bhikṣu, with regard to his internal body, observes and reflects from the soles of the feet up to the crown of the head, examining each place and finding it filled with various impurities and filth — that this body contains only: hair of the head and body, nails, teeth; dirt and grime, skin and flesh; sinews, veins, bones and marrow; spleen, kidneys, heart and lungs; liver, gallbladder, intestines and stomach; fat, suet, brain and membranes; pus, blood, belly-fat, and lipids; tears, sweat, mucus, and saliva; undigested and digested food, urine and feces. As he reflects in this way upon the signs of impurity, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises in him — the choosing, close choosing, and closest choosing; the understanding, equal understanding, and approaching understanding; the acuity, the penetration, the careful scrutiny and intelligence; the wakefulness, the clarity, the work of wisdom, the vipaśyanā — is "contemplation of the internal body," also called "body-mindfulness."

— When this contemplation is accomplished, put into practice, followed everywhere, pervaded everywhere, in motion and in understanding, it is called "abiding."

— A contemplator who can rouse effort and vigor — bold, forceful, fierce, blazing, hard to restrain, the mind unflagging — and who does so quickly and swiftly, is said to be "endowed with diligent effort."

— A contemplator who can engage in the discriminative examination of dharmas, up to and including vipaśyanā, and who can bring the excellent wisdom thus produced to full and complete development, is said to be "endowed with clear knowing."

— A contemplator who possesses mindfulness, follows up with mindfulness, is intent on it, recollects, neither forgets nor loses, neither omits nor slips, preserves the nature of dharmas, and keeps a clear memory in the mind, is said to be "endowed with steady mindfulness."

— Toward objects of sensual desire, every form of craving — grasping, hoarding, guarding, clinging; delight, infatuation, indulgence, pervasive indulgence; the inner bondage and yearning; the wallowing in the arising of suffering; whatever is of the class of craving, born of craving — is collectively called "desire."

— The mental distress arising from contact connected with unpleasant feeling, the unequal feeling, the class of sorrowful feeling, is collectively called "distress."

— As that contemplator cultivates this contemplation, he can cut off the desire and distress that arise in the world — fully comprehending them, distancing from them, distancing utterly, taming them, taming them utterly, making them subside and vanish. Hence the saying that he "puts aside worldly desire and distress."

〔2〕 Another bhikṣu observes and reflects upon the differences among the elements within his internal body — that it contains only the earth element, the water element, the fire element, the wind element, the space element, and the consciousness element.

— As he reflects in this way upon the signs of the elements, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of the internal body," also called body-mindfulness.

— "Abiding, endowed with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress" — all as before.

〔3〕 Another bhikṣu observes and reflects upon the many faults and dangers within his internal body — that this body is like a disease, like an abscess, like an arrow, a torment, impermanent, suffering, empty, non-self, ever turning, weary, exhausted, frail, prone to decay, swiftly passing without pause, decrepit, inconstant, not to be relied upon, subject to destruction.

— As he reflects in this way upon the faults of the body, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of the internal body," also called body-mindfulness.

— "Abiding, endowed with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress" — also as before.

[3] The treatise turns next to body-mindfulness as applied to the "external body," again with three modes of contemplation:

How does one abide contemplating the body in the external body, with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress?

"External body" means one's own body, where it does not currently exist in the continuum, having been lost; and the bodies of other sentient beings.

"Contemplating the body in the external body":

〔1〕 A bhikṣu observes and reflects, from the soles of the feet up to the crown of the head of another's body, upon the impurities in each place — that within it there are only the various kinds: hair of the head and body, nails and teeth, and so on down to urine and feces.

— As he reflects in this way upon the signs of impurity, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of the external body," also called body-mindfulness.

— "Abiding, endowed with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress" — also as before.

〔2〕 Another bhikṣu observes and reflects upon the differences among the elements within another's body — that it contains only the earth, water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness elements.

— As he reflects in this way upon the signs of the elements, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of the external body," also called body-mindfulness.

— "Abiding, endowed with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress" — also as before.

〔3〕 Another bhikṣu observes and reflects upon the many faults and dangers within another's body — that it is like a disease, like an abscess, and so on down to being subject to destruction.

— As he reflects in this way upon the faults of the body, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of the external body," also called body-mindfulness.

— "Abiding, endowed with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress" — also as before.

[4] Next, the treatise takes up "body-mindfulness" as applied to the "internal and external body," again in three modes:

How does one abide contemplating the body in both the internal and external body, with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress?

"Internal body" means one's own body, currently present in the continuum, obtained and not lost. "External body" means one's own body, where it does not currently exist in the continuum, having been lost; together with the bodies of other sentient beings. The two, taken together, are called "internal and external body."

"Contemplating the body in the internal and external body":

〔1〕 A bhikṣu gathers his own and others' bodies into a single heap and observes, from the soles of the feet up to the crown of the head, the impurities in each place — that within this body and that body there are only the various kinds: hair, body-hair, nails, teeth, and so on down to urine and feces.

— As he reflects in this way upon the signs of impurity, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of the internal and external body," also called body-mindfulness.

— "Abiding, endowed with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress" — also as before.

〔2〕 Another bhikṣu gathers his own and others' bodies into a single heap, observing and reflecting upon the differences among the elements — that within this body and that body there are only the earth, water, fire, wind, space, and consciousness elements.

— As he reflects in this way upon the signs of the elements, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of the internal and external body," also called body-mindfulness.

— "Abiding, endowed with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress" — also as before.

〔3〕 Another bhikṣu gathers his own and others' bodies into a single heap, observing and reflecting upon the many faults and dangers — that this body and that body are like a disease, like an abscess, and so on down to being subject to destruction.

— As he reflects in this way upon the faults of the body, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of the internal and external body," also called body-mindfulness.

— "Abiding, endowed with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress" — also as before.

[5] With body-mindfulness treated in full, the treatise turns to "feeling-mindfulness" (vedanā-smṛtyupasthāna). Again it begins with "feeling-mindfulness" applied to "internal feelings," this time in two modes:

How does one abide contemplating feelings within the internal feelings, with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress?

"Internal feelings" means one's own feelings, as they currently exist in the continuum, obtained and not lost.

"Contemplating feelings within the internal feelings":

〔1〕 A bhikṣu observes and reflects upon the various characteristics of internal feelings:

1. When he experiences a pleasant feeling, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a pleasant feeling." When he experiences a painful feeling, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a painful feeling." When he experiences a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling."

2. When he experiences a pleasant bodily feeling, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a pleasant bodily feeling." When he experiences a painful bodily feeling, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a painful bodily feeling." When he experiences a neither-painful-nor-pleasant bodily feeling, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a neither-painful-nor-pleasant bodily feeling."

3. When he experiences a pleasant mental feeling, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a pleasant mental feeling." When he experiences a painful mental feeling, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a painful mental feeling." When he experiences a neither-painful-nor-pleasant mental feeling, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a neither-painful-nor-pleasant mental feeling."

4. When he experiences a pleasant feeling with taint (āsava), he knows as it truly is, "I experience a pleasant feeling with taint." When he experiences a painful feeling with taint, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a painful feeling with taint." When he experiences a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling with taint, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling with taint."

5. When he experiences a pleasant feeling without taint, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a pleasant feeling without taint." When he experiences a painful feeling without taint, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a painful feeling without taint." When he experiences a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling without taint, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling without taint."

6. When he experiences a pleasant feeling based on attachment, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a pleasant feeling based on attachment." When he experiences a painful feeling based on attachment, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a painful feeling based on attachment." When he experiences a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling based on attachment, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling based on attachment."

7. When he experiences a pleasant feeling based on renunciation, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a pleasant feeling based on renunciation." When he experiences a painful feeling based on renunciation, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a painful feeling based on renunciation." When he experiences a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling based on renunciation, he knows as it truly is, "I experience a neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling based on renunciation."

— As he reflects in this way upon the characteristics of internal feelings, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of internal feelings," also called "feeling-mindfulness."……

〔2〕 Another bhikṣu observes and reflects upon the many faults and dangers of internal feelings — that these feelings are like a disease, like an abscess, and so on down to being subject to destruction.

— As he reflects in this way upon the faults of feelings, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of internal feelings," also called "feeling-mindfulness."

— "Abiding, endowed with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress" — all as before.

[6] The treatise then takes up "feeling-mindfulness" as applied to "external feelings" and "internal and external feelings," each in two modes of contemplation (omitted here). From there it goes on to "mind-mindfulness" (citta-smṛtyupasthāna) for "internal mind," "external mind," and "internal and external mind," each also in two modes. As an example, here is the exposition for "internal mind":

How does one abide contemplating the mind within the internal mind, with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress?

"Internal mind" means one's own mind, as it currently exists in the continuum, obtained and not lost.

"Contemplating the mind within the internal mind":

〔1〕 A bhikṣu observes and reflects upon the various characteristics of the internal mind:

1. With a mind that has greed within, he knows as it truly is, "There is greed within." With a mind free of greed within, he knows as it truly is, "There is no greed within." With a mind that has hatred within, he knows as it truly is, "There is hatred within." With a mind free of hatred within, he knows as it truly is, "There is no hatred within." With a mind that has delusion within, he knows as it truly is, "There is delusion within." With a mind free of delusion within, he knows as it truly is, "There is no delusion within."

2. With a mind that has gathered within, he knows as it truly is, "It is gathered within." With a mind that has scattered within, he knows as it truly is, "It is scattered within." With a sunken mind, he knows as it truly is, "It is sunken within." With an aroused mind, he knows as it truly is, "It is aroused within." With a small mind, he knows as it truly is, "It is small within." With a great mind, he knows as it truly is, "It is great within."

3. With a restless mind within, he knows as it truly is, "It is restless within." With a mind not restless within, he knows as it truly is, "It is not restless within." With an unquiet mind within, he knows as it truly is, "It is unquiet within." With a quiet mind within, he knows as it truly is, "It is quiet within." With an unconcentrated mind within, he knows as it truly is, "It is unconcentrated within." With a concentrated mind within, he knows as it truly is, "It is concentrated within."

4. With an uncultivated mind within, he knows as it truly is, "It is uncultivated within." With a cultivated mind within, he knows as it truly is, "It is cultivated within." With an unliberated mind within, he knows as it truly is, "It is unliberated within." With a liberated mind within, he knows as it truly is, "It is liberated within."

— As he reflects in this way upon the characteristics of the internal mind, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of the internal mind," also called "mind-mindfulness."……

〔2〕 Another bhikṣu observes and reflects upon the many faults and dangers of the internal mind — that this mind is like a disease, like an abscess, and so on down to being subject to destruction.

— As he reflects in this way upon the faults of mind, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of the internal mind," also called "mind-mindfulness."

— "Abiding, endowed with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress" — all as before.

[7] Finally, the treatise addresses "dharma-mindfulness" (dharma-smṛtyupasthāna) with regard to "internal dharmas," under four modes of contemplation that examine, respectively, the five hindrances, the six fetters, the seven factors of awakening, and the aggregates of perception and formations:

How does one abide contemplating dharmas within internal dharmas, with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress?

"Internal dharmas" means one's own aggregates of perception (saṃjñā-skandha) and formations (saṃskāra-skandha), as they currently exist in the continuum, obtained and not lost.

"Contemplating dharmas within internal dharmas":

〔1〕 A bhikṣu observes and reflects upon the characteristics of internal dharmas in the five hindrances: when the hindrance of sensual desire is present within, he knows as it truly is, "The hindrance of sensual desire is present within"; when it is not present, he knows as it truly is, "The hindrance of sensual desire is not present within." He further knows as it truly is that the internal hindrance of sensual desire, when it has not arisen, now arises; when it has arisen, is abandoned; and after being abandoned, does not arise again.

— As he reflects in this way upon this internal dharma, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of internal dharmas," also called dharma-mindfulness.……

— As said for the internal hindrance of sensual desire, so too for the internal hindrances of ill will, sloth-and-torpor, restlessness-and-remorse, and doubt.

〔2〕 Another bhikṣu observes and reflects upon the characteristics of internal dharmas in the six fetters: when the eye-fetter is present within, he knows as it truly is, "The eye-fetter is present within"; when it is not present, he knows as it truly is, "The eye-fetter is not present within." He further knows as it truly is that the internal eye-fetter, when it has not arisen, now arises; when it has arisen, is abandoned; and after being abandoned, does not arise again.

— As he reflects in this way upon this internal dharma, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of internal dharmas," also called "dharma-mindfulness."

— "Abiding, endowed with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress" — all as before.

— As said for the internal eye-fetter, so too for the internal ear-, nose-, tongue-, body-, and mind-fetters.

〔3〕 Another bhikṣu observes and reflects upon the characteristics of internal dharmas in the seven factors of awakening: when the factor of mindfulness is present within, he knows as it truly is, "The factor of mindfulness is present within"; when it is not present, he knows as it truly is, "The factor of mindfulness is not present within." He further knows as it truly is that the internal factor of mindfulness, when it has not arisen, now arises; once arisen, it remains firm, is not forgotten, is cultivated to fulfillment, doubled and grown, made vast and wide, for the sake of direct realization.

— As he reflects in this way upon this internal dharma, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of internal dharmas," also called "dharma-mindfulness."

— "Abiding, endowed with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress" — also as before.

— As said for the internal factor of mindfulness, so too for the remaining six internal factors of awakening.

〔4〕 Another bhikṣu observes and reflects upon the many faults and dangers of the internal aggregates of perception and formations just described — that these dharmas are like a disease, like an abscess, and so on down to being subject to destruction.

— As he reflects in this way upon the faults of dharmas, the discriminative examination of dharmas that arises, up to and including vipaśyanā, is "contemplation of internal dharmas," also called "dharma-mindfulness."

— "Abiding, endowed with diligent effort, clear knowing, and steady mindfulness, putting aside worldly desire and distress" — all as before.

[8] The treatise completes the treatment by explaining "dharma-mindfulness" with regard to "external dharmas" and "internal and external dharmas," once again each in four modes of contemplation. Taken as a whole, the exposition above of the Sūtra on the Four Foundations of Mindfulness brings out the essence of śamatha-vipaśyanā practice.

IV. Conclusion

In sum, the Dharmaskandha preserves early Buddhist terminology and the essentials of meditation practice. It's a genuinely valuable work, one that can well serve as a core text for the study of the Dharma.