Professor Lin Chong'an: The Buddhist Knowledge System Constructed in the Āgama Sūtras

Selected Treatises on Buddhist Studies — Unit 2 [Doctrinal Principles of Buddhism]

The Buddhist Knowledge System Constructed in the Āgama Sūtras

Lin Chong'an (2003)

Abstract:

This paper examines the core knowledge system of the Dharma as it stood during Śākyamuni Buddha's lifetime. Focusing on the thematic content of the Saṃyuktāgama, it draws on the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, the Saṃgītiparyāya, and the Dharmaskandha to clarify the knowledge system contained within the "all dharmas" (一切法) the Buddha spoke of. The system divides along two axes—"object" (境) and "cognition" (智)—and unfolds into the categories of object, practice, and fruit (foundations, path, fruit). The "object" axis covers seven topics: the aggregates, sense bases, dependent origination, food, truths, elements, and feelings. The "practice (path) and fruit" axis covers ten topics: the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right exertions, the four bases of spiritual power, the faculties, the powers, the seven factors of enlightenment, the eightfold noble path, mindfulness of breathing, the three trainings, and the fourfold confident reliance. These seventeen topics form the core thematic terminology of the Dharma. The "synonymic teachings" (異門)—texts compiled to gather and explain Buddhist terms—make up another important part of the system. In the final part of this paper, sūtra passages from the Saṃyuktāgama are examined in sequence. By looking at the formulas (定型句) found in the sūtras and at the patterns of sūtra structure (sūtra-types), we can understand the distinctive way the Buddha transmitted his knowledge system.

1. Introduction

The source of the Buddhist knowledge system is the awakening and teachings of Śākyamuni Buddha (c. 531–486 BCE). What the Buddha taught already contained the core knowledge system of the Dharma. Over time this grew into a far larger and more complex body of knowledge, encompassing vinaya studies, Buddhist logic, linguistics, medicine, and the arts, alongside the doctrines, histories, geographies, and lineages of the various Buddhist schools. This paper limits itself to the core of the Buddha's own knowledge system, drawing on the Āgama sūtras and related treatises to outline what he taught.

2. Thematic Content of the Āgama Sūtras

After the Buddha's parinirvāṇa, his disciples who set out to compile the Dharma faced an immediate question: how to systematically organize more than forty years of teaching? According to the account in the "Compendium of Topics" (攝事分) chapter of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, the sūtras gathered at the First Council were these:

The sūtras of "topics" (事契經) are the four Āgamas: the first, the Saṃyuktāgama; the second, the Madhyamāgama; the third, the Dīrghāgama; the fourth, the Ekottarāgama. The Saṃyuktāgama is so called because within it the World-Honored One, observing the various beings to be trained, spoke teachings corresponding to the Thus Come One and his disciples; corresponding to the aggregates, elements, and sense bases; corresponding to dependent origination, food, truths; [Note: According to the Tibetan version: corresponding to the aggregates, sense bases, and dependent origination, and likewise to food, truths, elements, and feelings] corresponding to the foundations of mindfulness, right exertions, bases of spiritual power, faculties, powers, factors of enlightenment, path factors, mindfulness of breathing, the trainings, and confident reliance; and, based on the eight assemblies, corresponding to the assemblies. Those who later compiled the teachings, wishing the sacred teachings to endure, gathered them into udāna verses and arranged them sequentially as appropriate.

One should know that all such "correspondences" can be summarized under three aspects. What are these three? First, the speaker; second, what is spoken; third, those for whom it is spoken. The "speaker"—whether the Thus Come One or his disciples—is the speaker, as in the portions of the Buddha's words and the disciples' words. What is to be known, or what is knowable, is the "spoken," as in the five appropriated aggregates, six sense bases, the dependent origination section, and the path factors section. The bhikṣus, devas, māras, and other assemblies are "those for whom it is spoken," as in the Council section.

All of this—briefly marking the speaker, what is spoken, and those for whom it is spoken—with these topic-correspondence teachings interspersed and gathered, is therefore called the "Saṃyuktāgama."

Those same topic-correspondence teachings, spoken again in a middling measure, are therefore called the "Madhyamāgama."

Those same topic-correspondence teachings, spoken again at greater length and in expanded form, are therefore called the "Dīrghāgama."

Those same topic-correspondence teachings, spoken again according to a progressive numerical pattern from one, two, three, and so forth, are therefore called the "Ekottarāgama."

This passage highlights several important points:

1. The sūtras of the Āgama (阿笈摩) differ as Miscellaneous, Middle, Long, and Numerically Incremented, but in composition they always contain the following: "aggregate correspondences," "sense-base correspondences," "correspondences with dependent origination, food, truths, elements, and feelings," "correspondences with the spoken teachings of the śrāvaka disciples," "correspondences with the spoken teachings of the Thus Come One," "correspondences with the foundations of mindfulness, right exertions, bases of spiritual power, faculties, powers, factors of enlightenment, path factors, mindfulness of breathing, the trainings, and confident reliance," and "assembly correspondences based on the eight assemblies." These in turn compose the chapters on Aggregates, Sense Bases, Dependent Origination, Disciples, Thus Come One, Path Factors, and Eight Assemblies. This was the order and content of the sūtras at the first compilation of the Saṃyuktāgama.

2. These correspondences can be summarized into: (a) "speakers," such as the disciples' words and the Buddha's words; (b) "what is spoken," such as the five appropriated aggregates, six sense bases, dependent origination, and the path factors; and (c) "those for whom it is spoken," such as the bhikṣus, devas, māras, and other eight assemblies. The "principles" (義理) and "practices" the Buddha taught over more than forty years make up the "what is spoken" portion; its content is precisely the Aggregates, Sense Bases, Dependent Origination, and Path Factors chapters.

According to the textual content of the Saṃyuktāgama, there are 110 sūtras in the Aggregates chapter, 131 in the Sense Bases chapter, 167 in the Dependent Origination chapter, and 248 in the Path Factors chapter (per the sūtra count of the Neiguan Education edition; with the Disciples, Thus Come One, and Eight Assemblies chapters added, the total comes to 1,334 sūtras). All of these teachings stay closely focused on "the body and mind of sentient beings." The "Fundamental Topic" (本地分) chapter of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra likewise states:

The speech of all Buddhas is encompassed by nine topics. What are these nine?

(1) the topic of sentient beings, (2) the topic of enjoyment, (3) the topic of arising, (4) the topic of establishment, (5) the topic of defilement and purification, (6) the topic of distinctions, (7) the topic of the speaker, (8) the topic of what is spoken, (9) the topic of the assemblies.

The topic of sentient beings is the five appropriated aggregates. The topic of enjoyment is the twelve sense bases. The topic of arising is the twelvefold dependent origination and what arises from it. The topic of establishment is the four kinds of food. The topic of defilement and purification is the four noble truths. The topic of distinctions is the immeasurable elements. The topic of the speaker is the Buddha and his disciples. The topic of what is spoken is the bodhipakṣika dharmas such as the four foundations of mindfulness. The topic of the assemblies is the eight assemblies.

This shows that the Buddha's more than forty years of teaching consisted of nothing other than the five appropriated aggregates, the twelve sense bases, the twelvefold dependent origination and what arises from it, the four foods, the four noble truths, the immeasurable elements, and the bodhipakṣika dharmas such as the four foundations of mindfulness—content that lines up, in order, with the Aggregates, Sense Bases, Dependent Origination, and Path Factors chapters. The "speaker" is the Buddha and his disciples; the "assemblies" are the eight assemblies.

From this the core themes of the Dharma come into focus: four chapters—Aggregates, Sense Bases, Dependent Origination, and Path Factors—which subdivide into seventeen topics: 1. aggregates (five aggregates), 2. sense bases (the six internal and external sense bases), 3. dependent origination, 4. food (four foods), 5. truths (four truths), 6. elements, 7. feelings, 8. the four foundations of mindfulness, 9. the four right exertions, 10. the four bases of spiritual power, 11. the faculties, 12. the powers, 13. the seven factors of enlightenment, 14. the eightfold noble path, 15. mindfulness of breathing, 16. the three trainings, 17. the fourfold confident reliance. The Aggregates chapter contains the one topic of aggregates; the Sense Bases chapter contains the one topic of sense bases; the Dependent Origination chapter contains the five topics of dependent origination, food, truths, elements, and feelings; the Path Factors chapter contains the ten topics of the four foundations of mindfulness, four right exertions, four bases of spiritual power, faculties, powers, seven factors of enlightenment, eightfold noble path, mindfulness of breathing, three trainings, and fourfold confident reliance.

3. The Two Major Knowledge Systems of "Object" and "Cognition" in the Saṃyuktāgama

The "Compendium of Topics" (攝事分) chapter of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, having worked through the principles of the Saṃyuktāgama, says:

Having thus briefly cited the essential mātṛkā of those sūtras corresponding to the "object" and "cognition" categories that accord with this treatise, one should understand all else by analogy with this example.

So the "Compendium of Topics" divides the "what is spoken" portion of the Saṃyuktāgama into two knowledge systems: the "object" (境) of knowledge and the "cognition" (智) that knows it. The "object" system contains the Aggregates chapter (five aggregates), the Sense Bases chapter (six sense bases), and the Dependent Origination chapter (dependent origination, four foods, four truths, elements, and feelings). The "cognition" system contains the Path Factors chapter (four foundations of mindfulness, four right exertions, four bases of spiritual power, faculties, powers, seven factors of enlightenment, eightfold noble path, mindfulness of breathing, three trainings, and fourfold confident reliance). The "what is spoken" under these two major themes is precisely the seventeen topics at the core of the Dharma. Subdividing each topic gives rise to a wealth of Buddhist terminology and unfolds into the Buddhist knowledge system:

1. Aggregates (five aggregates): form aggregate, feeling aggregate, perception aggregate, volitional formations aggregate, consciousness aggregate.

2. Sense bases (the six internal and external sense bases): eye, form; ear, sound; nose, odor; tongue, taste; body, touch; mind, mental object.

3. Dependent origination: ignorance, volitional formations, consciousness, name-and-form, six sense bases, contact, feeling, craving, clinging, existence, birth, aging-and-death.

4. Food (four foods): coarse physical food, fine contact food, mental intention food, consciousness food.

5. Truths (four noble truths): the noble truth of suffering, the noble truth of the origin of suffering, the noble truth of the cessation of suffering, the noble truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering.

6. Elements: (including the two, three, four, six, eighteen elements, and so on).

7. Feelings: (including the two, three, four, six, eighteen feelings, and so on).

8. Four foundations of mindfulness: contemplation of the body, contemplation of feelings, contemplation of the mind, contemplation of dharmas.

9. Four right exertions (four right strivings): to cause already arisen unwholesome dharmas to cease; to cause unarisen unwholesome dharmas not to arise; to cause unarisen wholesome dharmas to arise; to cause already arisen wholesome dharmas to remain firm, not be forgotten, and be cultivated to fullness and increase.

10. Four bases of spiritual power: the base of spiritual power of desire, attained through samādhi with supreme endeavor; the base of spiritual power of diligence; the base of spiritual power of mind; the base of spiritual power of discernment—each attained through samādhi with supreme endeavor.

11. Faculties (including three faculties and five faculties. The five faculties: faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, wisdom).

12. Powers (including two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, and ten powers. The five powers: faith, diligence, mindfulness, concentration, wisdom).

13. Seven factors of enlightenment: mindfulness, discrimination of dharmas, diligence, joy, tranquility, concentration, equanimity.

14. Eightfold noble path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, right concentration.

15. Mindfulness of breathing (which can be divided into sixteen aspects of practice).

16. Three trainings: training in precepts, training in concentration, training in wisdom.

17. Fourfold confident reliance: confident reliance on the Buddha, on the Dharma, on the Sangha, on the precepts loved by the noble ones.

Each of these topics can be subdivided further. The form aggregate, for instance, divides into past form, future form, present form, internal form, external form, coarse form, subtle form, attractive form, repulsive form, distant form, and near form. As the seventeen topics branch into finer categories, they form the knowledge system the Buddha transmitted through the Saṃyuktāgama.

Now that we've worked through the seventeen topics according to the "Compendium of Topics," let's turn to an outline of the knowledge system as the Buddha himself spoke it.

4. The Outline of the Knowledge System the Buddha Spoke Of

From the Saṃyuktāgama, here are several passages in which the Buddha addresses knowable dharmas and all dharmas:

The World-Honored One told the bhikṣus: "I shall speak of the knowable dharma, the cognition, and the cognizer. Listen well and think it through. I shall explain.

What is the knowable dharma? It is the five aggregates of feeling. Which five? The form aggregate of feeling, and the feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness aggregates of feeling. This is called the knowable dharma.

What is cognition? The subduing of craving, the cutting off of craving, the going beyond craving. This is called cognition.

What is the cognizer? The arhat is the cognizer." (T72)

Here the "knowable dharma" is the five appropriated aggregates (the five aggregates of feeling), and this belongs to the "object" (境) of knowledge. What knows it is "cognition" and the "cognizer" (the arhat).

What is the all-knowing dharma, the all-discerning dharma?

Bhikṣus, the eye is a knowing and discerning dharma, as are form, eye-consciousness, eye-contact, and the feeling that arises dependent on eye-contact—an inner feeling, whether painful, pleasant, or neither painful nor pleasant. All of these are knowing and discerning dharmas.

The same is true of the ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind." (T222)

Here the "all-knowable dharmas" are the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind (the six internal sense bases), along with their associated form, sound, odor, taste, touch, and mental object (the six external sense bases), the six consciousnesses, the six contacts, and the feelings they give rise to. The six internal bases, six external bases, and six consciousnesses together make up the eighteen elements—all within the "object" (境) of knowledge.

The Buddha told the brāhmaṇa: "'All' refers to the twelve sense bases: eye, form; ear, sound; nose, odor; tongue, taste; body, touch; mind, mental object. These are called 'all.' If one were to say, 'This is not all; what the ascetic Gautama calls all, I now set aside and establish some other "all,"' that would be mere words—questioned, he would not know, and his doubts would only grow. Why? Because it is beyond his reach." (T319)

Here it is directly stated that all dharmas are the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind (the six internal sense bases) along with form, sound, odor, taste, touch, and mental object (the six external sense bases). This refers to "all the knowable dharmas," within the "object" (境) of knowledge.

The Buddha told the brāhmaṇa: "The eye and form, eye-consciousness, eye-contact, and the feeling that arises dependent on eye-contact—whether painful, pleasant, or neither painful nor pleasant. The ear, nose, tongue, body, mind, mental object, mind-consciousness, mind-contact, and the feeling that arises dependent on mind-contact—whether painful, pleasant, or neither painful nor pleasant. These are called all dharmas. If one were to say, 'These are not all dharmas; what the ascetic Gautama calls all dharmas, I now set aside and set up some other "all dharmas,"' that would be mere words—questioned, he does not know, and his doubts only grow. Why? Because it is beyond his reach." (T321)

Here too all dharmas are the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind (the six internal sense bases), along with the associated form, sound, odor, taste, touch, and mental object (the six external sense bases), the six consciousnesses, the six contacts, and the feelings they give rise to. Again, this points to "all the knowable dharmas," within the "object" (境) of knowledge.

The Blessed One addressed the bhikshus: "What is meant by 'all dharmas, all dharmas' is the four foundations of mindfulness; this is the correct teaching. What are the four? They are the contemplation of the body in the body, the contemplation of feelings in feelings, the contemplation of the mind in the mind, and the contemplation of dharmas in dharmas." (T633)

Here the Blessed One indicates that "all dharmas, all dharmas" refers to the four foundations of mindfulness — that is, the "all-dharmas that can be known" — while the other factors of awakening are implicitly included within this. This belongs to the "wisdom" that knows.

From the passages cited above, we can see how the Blessed One understood a system of knowledge: the "objects of knowledge" are the aggregates and sense spheres (together with consciousness, feeling, the elements, and so on); the "knowing wisdom" is the four foundations of mindfulness and the other factors of awakening. Together these make up "all dharmas," and they also serve as the basis for the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra, in its section Shè Shì Fēn (摄事分).

Because the four foundations of mindfulness and the other factors of awakening are the "wisdom" that arises in the mind during the practice of the Dharma, encompassing both "path (or practice)" and "fruit," the Buddhist knowledge system can be developed along the two axes of "object" and "knowing wisdom" into the framework of "object, practice, fruit (faculties, path, fruit)": the "object" axis covers seven items — the aggregates, the sense spheres, dependent origination, nutriment, the truths, the elements, and feelings; the "practice (path) and fruit" axis covers ten items — the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right efforts, the four bases of spiritual power, the faculties, the powers, the seven factors of awakening, the noble eightfold path, mindfulness of breathing, the threefold training, and the four convictions. That gives seventeen items in all. Each of them can be opened up into still more detailed doctrinal categories.

V. The Emergence of Synonyms (Yìmén) and Dharma Collections (Fǎyùn)

To organize such a vast body of knowledge, the Blessed One's disciples used "synonyms" to master Buddhist terminology and definitions, or compiled "dharma collections" by selecting representative sutras and explaining them in detail.

A. The Emergence of Synonyms

Take the Yogācārabhūmi Śāstra, section Shè Yìmén Fēn (摄异门分), as an example. This section explains Buddhist terminology in detail, following the order of the white category (positive qualities) and the black category (negative qualities). The summary verses for the white and black categories are listed below:

White Category, First Verse:

【1】Teacher 【2】Foremost 【3】Wisdom, 【4】four kinds of right teaching, etc.

【5】Also causal conditions, etc., 【6】generosity 【7】precepts 【8】the path, explained in full.

White Category, Second Verse:

【9】Wisdom 【10】proclamation 【11】good 【12】aspiration, 【13】ardent 【14】solitary 【15】far from dust.

【16】Like illness, etc. 【17】explanation, 【18】self 【19】cut off 【20】end of birth, etc.

【21】Also heavenly and human beings, 【22】dependence, etc. 【23】self-clinging, etc.

White Category, Third Verse:

【24】Tathāgata 【25】contemplation of impermanence, 【26】Dīpaṃkara 【27】fear 【28】the unconditioned.

【29】Non-existence 【30】non-continuity, 【31】emptiness 【32】impermanence 【33】without remainder.

White Category, Fourth Verse:

【34】Three kinds of desire 【35】invitation, 【36】Dharma 【37】Saṅgha 【38】as the basis.

【39】Disgust 【40】brahmin 【41】impermanence, 【42】foam and the like as conclusion.

Black Category, Single Verse:

【1】Birth 【2】old age 【3】death 【4】storehouse, etc., 【5】delightful, etc. 【6】afflictions.

【7】Detailed explanation of greed, hatred, and delusion, 【8】few, etc. 【9】distinctions, etc.

Altogether there are 42 topics across the four white-category verses, and 9 topics in the single black-category verse. Each topic gathers the relevant strung-together terms or "fixed phrases" from the scriptures and provides an explanation. For example:

• 【20】The "end of birth" topic explains a set of linked terms or "fixed phrase": "I have ended birth, the holy life has been established, what needed to be done has been done, I know for myself that I will receive no further existence."
• 【32】The "impermanence" topic explains a set of linked terms or "fixed phrase": "impermanent, conditioned, fabricated, dependently originated, having an end, having a cessation, having a release from desire, having an extinction."

As another example, take the Jí Yìmén Zú Lùn (集异门足论), transmitted by the Blessed One's great disciple Śāriputra. This text explains Buddhist terminology in detail by arranging synonyms in numerical order, from one dharma up to ten dharmas. Let us take the "six dharmas" section as an example:

First Summary Verse:

The first set of six dharmas has ten kinds: internal and external, consciousness, contact, as well as feeling, perception, volition, craving, and the six factors of regression and non-regression.

The six internal sense spheres, six external sense spheres, six consciousness bases, six contact bases, six feeling bases, six perception bases, six volition bases, six craving bases, six factors conducive to regression, and six factors conducive to non-regression.

Second Summary Verse:

The latter set of six dharmas has fourteen kinds: joy, sorrow, equanimity, abiding, elements, emergence, faculties, joy, spiritual powers, clarity, mindfulness, supremacy, and contemplations of types.

Six proximate causes of joy, six proximate causes of sorrow, six proximate causes of equanimity, six abidings, six elements, six elements of emergence, six root causes of dispute, six agreeable dharmas, six spiritual powers, six contemplations of the luminous aspect, six recollections, six supreme dharmas, six kinds of contemplation, and six kinds of beings.

The six-dharma section contains twenty-four terms in all: from "six internal sense spheres, six external sense spheres, six consciousness bases" all the way to "six supreme dharmas, six kinds of contemplation, six kinds of beings." Each term comprises six sub-items, so together they yield 144 individual Buddhist terms, and the treatise defines each one in detail.

In this way the Blessed One's disciples used the method of synonyms — moving from white to black categories, or counting from one dharma to ten dharmas (an incremental approach) — to come to grips with Buddhist terminology and definitions, and so to master the vast knowledge system of the Dharma.

B. The Emergence of Dharma Collections

Take the Fǎyùn Zú Lùn (法蕴足论), transmitted by the Blessed One's great disciple Maudgalyāyana, as an example. This text selects twenty-one representative sutras and explains each in detail, forming twenty-one chapters as follows: training rules, factors of stream-entry, convictions, fruits of the śramaṇa, paths of practice, noble kinds, right strivings, bases of spiritual power, foundations of mindfulness, noble truths, absorptions, immeasurables, formless realms, cultivation of concentration, factors of awakening, miscellaneous matters, faculties, sense spheres, aggregates, multiple elements, and dependent origination. Each chapter title names a core Buddhist term, which in turn subsumes a number of individual terms. They are listed below:

1. Five Training Rules: abstaining from killing, abstaining from taking what is not given, abstaining from sexual misconduct, abstaining from false speech, abstaining from intoxicants that cause heedlessness.
2. Four Factors of Stream-Entry: drawing close to a good friend, hearing the true Dharma, reflecting in accordance with principle, practicing in accordance with the Dharma.
3. Four Convictions: conviction in the Buddha, conviction in the Dharma, conviction in the Saṅgha, and the noble ones' beloved moral discipline.
4. Four Fruits of the Śramaṇa: the fruit of stream-entry, the fruit of once-returner, the fruit of non-returner, and the fruit of arhat.
5. Four Paths of Practice: the painful and slow path, the painful and swift path, the blissful and slow path, and the blissful and swift path.
6. Four Noble Kinds: contentment with whatever robes one obtains, contentment with whatever food one obtains, contentment with whatever bedding one obtains, and delight in severing attachment and cultivating that severance; delight in renunciation and cultivating that renunciation.
7. Four Right Strivings: to cause arisen unwholesome dharmas to cease, to prevent unarisen unwholesome dharmas from arising, to cause unarisen wholesome dharmas to arise, and to cause arisen wholesome dharmas to remain firm, unforgotten, fully cultivated, and to increase.
8. Four Bases of Spiritual Power: the base of spiritual power of aspiration, perfected through superior samādhi; the base of spiritual power of effort, perfected through superior samādhi; the base of spiritual power of mind, perfected through superior samādhi; and the base of spiritual power of investigation, perfected through superior samādhi.
9. Four Foundations of Mindfulness: contemplation of the body, contemplation of feelings, contemplation of the mind, contemplation of dharmas.
10. Four Noble Truths: the noble truth of suffering, the noble truth of the origin of suffering, the noble truth of the cessation of suffering, and the noble truth of the path leading to the cessation of suffering.
11. Four Absorptions: the first absorption, the second absorption, the third absorption, the fourth absorption.
12. Four Immeasurables: immeasurable loving-kindness, immeasurable compassion, immeasurable sympathetic joy, immeasurable equanimity.
13. Four Formless Realms: the realm of infinite space, the realm of infinite consciousness, the realm of nothingness, the realm of neither perception nor non-perception.
14. Four Kinds of Concentration Cultivation: attaining present-life blissful abiding, attaining superior wisdom-vision, attaining superior discriminating wisdom, and attaining the complete exhaustion of all contaminants.
15. Seven Factors of Awakening: the awakening factor of mindfulness, the awakening factor of investigation of dharmas, the awakening factor of effort, the awakening factor of joy, the awakening factor of tranquility, the awakening factor of concentration, the awakening factor of equanimity.
16. Miscellaneous Matters (the permanent cutting off of one [set of dharmas], comprising 79 terms): greed, hatred, delusion, anger, resentment, concealment, vexation, envy, miserliness, deceit, hypocrisy, shamelessness, unscrupulousness, pride, overweening pride, pride beyond overweening pride, the pride of "I," superiority pride, inferiority pride, perverse pride, arrogance, heedlessness, haughtiness, fury, false pretense, craftiness, displays of signs, goading, seeking gain through gain, unwholesome desire, excessive desire, desire for display, discontent, disrespect, harsh speech, fondness for bad friends, intolerance, indulgence, pervasive indulgence, tainted greed, unrighteous greed, clinging greed, bad greed, the view of self, the view of existence, the view of non-existence, sensual desire, ill will, dullness, drowsiness, restlessness, regret, doubt, confusion, dejection, stretching, yawning, improper eating, dullness of mind, various fancies, lack of attention, heaviness, obstinacy, gluttony, lack of gentleness, lack of pliancy, failure to follow one's betters, the proliferation of desire, the proliferation of aversion, the proliferation of harm, the proliferation of relatives, the proliferation of country, the proliferation of immortality, the proliferation of contempt, the proliferation of false lineage, sorrow, lamentation, suffering, grief, and disturbance.
17. Twenty-Two Faculties: the eye faculty, ear faculty, nose faculty, tongue faculty, body faculty, mind faculty, female faculty, male faculty, life faculty, pleasure faculty, pain faculty, joy faculty, sorrow faculty, equanimity faculty, faith faculty, effort faculty, mindfulness faculty, concentration faculty, wisdom faculty, the faculty of one who has yet to know, the faculty of one who has known, and the faculty of one who has completed knowing.
18. Twelve Sense Spheres: the eye sphere, ear sphere, nose sphere, tongue sphere, body sphere, mind sphere, form sphere, sound sphere, smell sphere, taste sphere, touch sphere, and dharma sphere.
19. Five Aggregates: the form aggregate, feeling aggregate, perception aggregate, volitional formations aggregate, and consciousness aggregate.
20. Multiple Elements (including two-element, three-element, four-element, six-element, and eighteen-element divisions):
    • Eighteen Elements: the eye element, form element, and eye-consciousness element; the ear element, sound element, and ear-consciousness element; the nose element, smell element, and nose-consciousness element; the tongue element, taste element, and tongue-consciousness element; the body element, touch element, and body-consciousness element; the mind element, dharma element, and mind-consciousness element.
    • Six Elements: the earth element, water element, fire element, wind element, space element, and consciousness element.
    • Six Elements: the desire element, aversion element, harm element, desirelessness element, aversionlessness element, and harmlessness element.
    • Six Elements: the pleasure element, pain element, joy element, sorrow element, equanimity element, and ignorance element.
    • Four Elements: the feeling element, perception element, volitional formation element, and consciousness element.
    • Three Elements: the desire realm, form realm, and formless realm.
    • Three Elements: the form realm, formless realm, and cessation realm.
    • Three Elements: the past realm, future realm, and present realm.
    • Three Elements: the inferior realm, middle realm, and superior realm.
    • Three Elements: the wholesome realm, unwholesome realm, and indeterminate realm.
    • Three Elements: the mundane realm, supramundane realm, and neither mundane nor supramundane realm.
    • Two Elements: the element with outflows and the element without outflows.
    • Two Elements: the conditioned element and the unconditioned element.
21. Twelve Links of Dependent Origination: ignorance, volitional formations, consciousness, name-and-form, the six sense spheres, contact, feeling, craving, clinging, existence, birth, and old age and death.

The above breakdown contains 356 Buddhist terms in all. Through a thorough grasp of these representative terms, one can begin to take hold of the vast Buddhist knowledge system.

VI. The Use of Fixed Phrases in the Saṃyuktāgama

Across more than forty years of repeated teaching, the Blessed One's instructions gave rise to "fixed phrases," which help in expressing and memorizing the content of the Buddhist knowledge system.

For example, here are some "fixed phrases" from the Aggregates chapter of the Saṃyuktāgama (fixed phrases are marked with 【】; any wording that has been corrected with respect to older translations of the sūtras and treatises is marked with 〔〕):

(-) "Bhikshus, for one whose mind is liberated, 【if one wishes to realize it for oneself, one can realize it for oneself: 'Birth has been ended, the holy life has been established, what needed to be done has been done, I know for myself that I will receive no further existence.'】" (T1)

(a) 【With regard to form, if one knows it, if one clearly sees it, if one has cut it off, if one is free from desire for it,】 one is then able to cut off suffering. (b) 【Likewise with regard to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness — if one knows them, if one clearly sees them, if one has cut them off, if one is free from desire for them,】 one is then able to cut off suffering. (T3)

(a) 【Form is impermanent; what is impermanent is suffering; what is suffering is not-self; what is not-self is not mine】 — one who observes in this way is said to have a true and correct view. (b) 【Likewise, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness are impermanent; what is impermanent is suffering; what is suffering is not-self; 〔what is not-self〕 is not mine】 — one who observes in this way is said to have a true and correct view. (T9)

(a) One should observe and know 【all forms — whether past, future, or present; whether internal or external; whether gross or subtle; whether beautiful or ugly; whether far or near — all of them are entirely impermanent.】 Once one has correctly observed impermanence, attachment to form is abandoned; with attachment to form abandoned, the mind is well liberated. (b) 【Likewise one should observe feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness — whether past, future, or present; whether internal or external; whether gross or subtle; whether beautiful or ugly; whether far or near — all of them are entirely impermanent.】 Once one has correctly observed impermanence, attachment to consciousness is abandoned; with attachment to consciousness abandoned, 〔the mind is well liberated〕. (T22)

(a) 【Having grown disenchanted with form, having become dispassionate toward it, having brought it to an end,】 the contaminants do not arise, and the mind is rightly liberated. (b) 【Likewise, 〔with regard to〕 feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness — having grown disenchanted, having become dispassionate, having brought them to an end,】 the contaminants do not arise, and the mind is rightly liberated. (T28)

(a) 【Form is known as it truly is; the arising of form, the cessation of form, the allure of form, the peril of form, and the escape from form are known as they truly are.】 (b) 【Feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness are known as they truly are; the arising of consciousness, the cessation of consciousness, the allure of consciousness, the peril of consciousness, and the escape from consciousness are known as they truly are.】 (T258)

(-) 【The five feeling-aggregates are like an illness, like a boil, like a dart, like death; they are impermanent, suffering, empty, and not-self.】 (T259, 265, 104)

And here are some "fixed phrases" from the Sense Sphere chapter of the Saṃyuktāgama:

(a) 【With regard to the eye, if one knows it, if one is aware of it, if one has cut it off, if one is free from desire for it,】 one is capable of bringing suffering to a complete end. (b) 【With regard to the ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind — if one knows them, if one is aware of them, if one has cut them off, if one is free from desire for them,】 one is capable of bringing suffering to a complete end. (T190)

(a) 【The eye is like an illness, like a boil, like a dart, like death; it is impermanent, suffering, empty, and not-self】 — one knows this as it truly is. (b) 【The ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind are likewise the same.】 (T198)

(a) 【The eye is impermanent; and form, eye-consciousness, eye-contact, and the feelings that arise conditioned by eye-contact — painful feeling, pleasant feeling, and neither-painful-nor-pleasant feeling — these too are impermanent.】 (b) 【The ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind are likewise the same.】 (T195)

(a) The eye is empty—empty of permanence, constancy, and immutability; empty of anything that can be called "mine." Why? Because this is its very nature. [The same holds for form, consciousness, eye-contact, and whatever feeling arises from eye-contact—whether painful, pleasant, or neither—] that too is empty, empty of permanence, constancy, and immutability; empty of anything that can be called "mine." Why? Because this is its very nature.

(b) [The same applies to the ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind.] (Da 232)

The passages cited above—【Birth is exhausted, the holy life is established, what was to be done is done, and I know there will be no further rebirth】, 【the arising of form, the cessation of form, the gratification of form, the danger in form, the escape from form】, and 【like a disease, like a boil, like a dart, like death—impermanent, suffering, empty, non-self】—are all well-known formulas in the Buddha's teachings. These fixed formulas greatly help express and transmit Buddhist knowledge, and they stand as a defining feature of the Buddhist knowledge system. They are also closely related to the "synonymous terms" (異門) discussed earlier.

VII. Structural Analysis of the Āgama Sutra Texts

To understand how the Buddha transmitted his knowledge system to his disciples, the following examples from the Saṃyuktāgama illustrate, section by section, the internal architecture of these sutras and the different patterns they follow. The reference numbers appended after each sutra are: (Yin x) for Master Yin Shun's numbered edition; (Guang x) for the Fo Guang edition; (Da x) for the Taishō Tripiṭaka edition; (Nei x) for the Vipassanā Education edition; and [S x] for the corresponding suttā in the Pāli Saṃyutta.

Example 1

(1) Thus have I heard: At one time, the Buddha was staying at Anāthapiṇḍika's Park in Jeta Grove near Śrāvastī.

(2a) At that time, the Bhagavān addressed the bhikṣus: "There are six bodies of consciousness. What are the six?

(2b) They are: the body of visual consciousness, the body of auditory consciousness, the body of olfactory consciousness, the body of gustatory consciousness, the body of tactile consciousness, and the body of mental consciousness.

(2c) These are called the six bodies of consciousness."

(3) When the Buddha had finished speaking, the bhikṣus, having heard his words, rejoiced and put them into practice.

(Yin 439) (Guang 303) (Da 325) (Nei 225)

In this example, the Buddha simply introduces a set of Dharma terms. This is the most basic sutra pattern—it doesn't touch on the "forward flow" or "reversal" of dependent origination. He used this pattern only occasionally.

Example 2A

(1) Thus have I heard: At one time, the Buddha was staying at the Gable Pavilion by the Monkey Pond near Vaiśālī.

(2) At that time, the Bhagavān addressed the bhikṣus: "There are six hooks of Māra. What are the six?

(3) The eye relishing forms—that is a hook of Māra. The ear relishing sounds—that is a hook of Māra. The nose relishing odors—that is a hook of Māra. The tongue relishing tastes—that is a hook of Māra. The body relishing tangibles—that is a hook of Māra. The mind relishing mental objects—that is a hook of Māra.

(4) If a śramaṇa or brahmin relishes forms with the eye, know that such a śramaṇa or brahmin has been hooked by the throat by Māra and has no freedom from Māra."

(5) The same principle applies, in full, to unwholesome and wholesome speech, as elaborated above.

(Yin 355–356) (Guang 246) (Da 244) (Nei 167) [S 189]

Here, beyond introducing a set of terms, the Buddha also hints at the forward flow of dependent origination—how clinging robs us of freedom. This too is a relatively simple pattern.

Example 2B

(1) Thus have I heard: At one time, the Buddha was staying at Anāthapiṇḍika's Park in Jeta Grove near Śrāvastī.

(2) At that time, the Bhagavān addressed the bhikṣus: "Suppose a donkey follows a herd of cattle, thinking: 'I will low like a cow.' But its shape doesn't resemble a cow, its color doesn't resemble a cow, and when it opens its mouth, the sound doesn't match. It trails along after the herd, convinced it's a cow, mooing like a cow—yet it is utterly unlike a real cow.

(3) So too, there is a foolish man who breaks the rules and violates the precepts, trailing along after the assembly, declaring: 'I am a bhikṣu, I am a bhikṣu.' But he doesn't train in the higher discipline, the higher concentration, or the higher wisdom that surpasses worldly attachment. Following the assembly, he keeps saying, 'I am a bhikṣu, I am a bhikṣu'—when in truth he is nothing like a bhikṣu."

(4) At that time, the Bhagavān spoke these verses:

A hoofed beast without horns, four-legged, with voice and mouth, follows the great herd, always treating them as kin— yet its form is not bovine, nor can it low like one. So too this fool, his mind never bound to right thought, indifferent to the Sugata's teaching, devoid of zeal for diligent effort, lazy, negligent, arrogant—fails to attain the supreme path. Like a donkey among cattle, forever far from being one, though he follows the assembly, inwardly he is always at odds.

(5) When the Buddha had finished speaking, the bhikṣus, having heard his words, rejoiced and put them into practice.

(Yin 1119) (Guang 840) (Da 82) (Nei 626)

Here, the Buddha first offers a simile and then points to the forward flow—breaking rules and violating precepts. He used this pattern only occasionally.

Example 3A

(1) Thus have I heard: At one time, the Buddha was staying at Anāthapiṇḍika's Park in Jeta Grove near Śrāvastī.

(2a) At that time, the Bhagavān addressed the bhikṣus: "Contemplate form as impermanent. One who contemplates thus is contemplating rightly; right contemplation gives rise to disenchantment. Through disenchantment, delight and greed fade away; when delight and greed have faded, that is called liberation of mind.

(2b) So too, contemplate feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness as impermanent. One who contemplates thus is contemplating rightly; right contemplation gives rise to disenchantment. Through disenchantment, delight and greed fade away; when delight and greed have faded, that is called liberation of mind.

(3) So too, bhikṣus, one whose mind is liberated, if one wishes to realize it for oneself, can realize it: Birth is exhausted, the holy life is established, what was to be done is done, and I know there will be no further rebirth. (Yin 1)

(4) As with contemplating impermanence, the same applies to contemplating [things as] suffering, empty, and non-self."

(5) At that time, the bhikṣus, having heard the Buddha's words, rejoiced and put them into practice.

(Yin 2–4) (Guang 1) (Da 1) (Nei 1) [S 12–14, 51]

Here, the Buddha teaches the reversal of dependent origination directly: by rightly contemplating form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness as impermanent, disenchantment arises; through the ending of delight and greed, the mind is liberated. This was one of the patterns he used most often.

Example 3B

(1) Thus have I heard: At one time, the Buddha was staying at Anāthapiṇḍika's Park in Jeta Grove near Śrāvastī.

(2) At that time, the Bhagavān addressed the bhikṣus: "The perception of impermanence, when cultivated, practiced, and developed extensively, cuts through all sensual craving, craving for form, craving for the formless, restlessness, conceit, and ignorance.

(3a) Just as a farmer, in late summer and early autumn, deep-plows his field, uprooting stumps and cutting away weeds—

(3b) so too, bhikṣus, the perception of impermanence, when cultivated, practiced, and developed extensively, cuts through all sensual craving, craving for form, craving for the formless, restlessness, conceit, and ignorance.

(4a) Just as, bhikṣus, someone mowing grass takes hold of the ends, lifts, and shakes—the withered bits all fall away, leaving only the sound stalks—

(4b) so too, bhikṣus, the perception of impermanence, when cultivated, practiced, and developed extensively, cuts through all sensual craving, craving for form, craving for the formless, restlessness, conceit, and ignorance.

(5a) Just as mangoes hanging on a tree, when a fierce wind whips the branches, all come tumbling down—

(5b) so too, the perception of impermanence, when cultivated, practiced, and developed extensively, cuts through all sensual craving, craving for form, craving for the formless, restlessness, conceit, and ignorance.

(6a) Just as a tall tower, solid at its core, is what all the other timbers depend on and hold together—

(6b) so too, the perception of impermanence, when cultivated, practiced, and developed extensively, cuts through all sensual craving, craving for form, craving for the formless, restlessness, conceit, and ignorance.

(7a) Just as among all the footprints of living creatures, the elephant's is the greatest, because it encompasses all the rest—

(7b) so too, the perception of impermanence, when cultivated, practiced, and developed extensively, cuts through all sensual craving, craving for form, craving for the formless, restlessness, conceit, and ignorance.

(8a) Just as in Jambudvīpa, all rivers flow toward the great ocean, and the ocean is foremost because it receives them all—

(8b) so too, the perception of impermanence, when cultivated, practiced, and developed extensively, cuts through all sensual craving, craving for form, craving for the formless, restlessness, conceit, and ignorance.

(9a) Just as the rising sun dispels all the darkness of the world—

(9b) so too, the perception of impermanence, when cultivated, practiced, and developed extensively, cuts through all sensual craving, craving for form, craving for the formless, restlessness, conceit, and ignorance.

(10a) Just as a wheel-turning monarch is supreme and unsurpassed among lesser kings—

(10b) so too, the perception of impermanence, when cultivated, practiced, and developed extensively, cuts through all sensual craving, craving for form, craving for the formless, restlessness, conceit, and ignorance.

(11) Bhikṣus, how does the perception of impermanence, when cultivated, practiced, and developed extensively, cut through all sensual craving, craving for form, craving for the formless, restlessness, conceit, and ignorance?

(12) When a bhikṣu, in an open clearing or among the trees of a forest, rightly contemplates form as impermanent, and feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness as impermanent—contemplating thus, he cuts through all sensual craving, craving for form, craving for the formless, restlessness, conceit, and ignorance. Why? Because the perception of impermanence gives rise to the perception of non-self. A noble disciple who abides in the perception of non-self, his mind free from the conceit of 'I,' flows naturally toward nirvāṇa."

(13) When the Buddha had finished speaking, the bhikṣus, having heard his words, rejoiced and put them into practice.

(Yin 53) (Guang 47) (Da 270) (Nei 46) [S 102]

Here, the Buddha pairs similes with his teaching on the reversal of dependent origination—how rightly contemplating form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness as impermanent cuts through all sensual craving, craving for form, craving for the formless, restlessness, conceit, and ignorance. He used this pattern only occasionally.

Example 4A

(1) Thus have I heard: At one time, the Buddha was staying at Anāthapiṇḍika's Park in Jeta Grove near Śrāvastī.

(2a) At that time, the Bhagavān addressed the bhikṣus: "If one does not know, does not understand, does not sever, and does not let go of attachment to form, one cannot put an end to suffering.

(2b) So too, if one does not know, does not understand, does not sever, and does not let go of attachment to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, one cannot put an end to suffering.

(3a) Bhikṣus, if one knows, understands, severs, and lets go of attachment to form, then one is able to put an end to suffering.

(3b) So too, if one knows, understands, severs, and lets go of attachment to feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, then one is able to put an end to suffering."

(4) At that time, the bhikṣus, having heard the Buddha's words, rejoiced and put them into practice.

(Yin 6) (Guang 3) (Da 3) (Nei 3) [S 24]

Here, the Buddha first teaches the forward flow of dependent origination—not knowing, not understanding, not severing, not releasing attachment to form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness—and then teaches its reversal: knowing, understanding, severing, and releasing attachment, one puts an end to suffering. This was the pattern he used most frequently.

Example 4B

(1) Thus have I heard: At one time, the Buddha was staying at Anāthapiṇḍika's Park in Jeta Grove near Śrāvastī.

(2a) At that time, the Bhagavān addressed the bhikṣus: "Imagine a river rushing down from a mountain gorge—deep, swift, pounding forward, sweeping away everything in its path. Along both banks grow grasses and trees, bent low by the flood, leaning toward the water. People trying to cross are mostly carried off by the current and drowned. If a wave happens to wash them near the bank, they grab at the grass and trees—but these too break away, and they're swept off again.

(2b) So too, bhikṣus, when ordinary, uninstructed people do not truly understand form, the arising of form, the cessation of form, the gratification of form, the danger in form, or the escape from form—because they don't truly understand, they delight in and cling to form, declaring, 'Form is my self.' Then form falls away from them.

(2c) Not truly understanding feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness—their arising, cessation, gratification, danger, and escape—they delight in and cling to consciousness, declaring, 'Consciousness is my self.' Then consciousness falls away from them.

(3a) But when a learned noble disciple truly understands form, the arising of form, the cessation of form, the gratification of form, the danger in form, and the escape from form—because he truly understands, he does not delight in or cling to form.

(3b) Truly understanding feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness—their arising, cessation, gratification, danger, and escape—because he truly understands, he does not delight in or cling to consciousness.

(4) Because he does not delight in or cling to them, he knows for himself: Birth is exhausted, the holy life is established, what was to be done is done, and I know there will be no further rebirth."

(5) When the Buddha had finished speaking, the bhikṣus, having heard his words, rejoiced and put them into practice.

(Yin 51) (Guang 45) (Da 268) (Nei 44) [S 93]

Here, the Buddha uses a simile alongside his teaching, first presenting the forward flow—not knowing, not understanding, not severing, not releasing attachment—and then the reversal: knowing, understanding, severing, and releasing, suffering ends. This was one of the patterns he used often.

Example 5

(1) Thus have I heard: At one time, the Buddha was staying at Anāthapiṇḍika's Park in Jeta Grove near Śrāvastī.

(2) At that time, the Bhagavān addressed the bhikṣus: "Cultivate and practice meditative contemplation to quiet the mind within. Why? Because when a bhikṣu has cultivated and practiced meditative contemplation, quieting the mind within, he can observe reality as it truly is.

(3) And what does it mean to observe reality as it truly is? It means truly knowing form, the arising of form, and the cessation of form; truly knowing feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness—the arising of consciousness and the cessation of consciousness.

(4a) What is the arising of form? What is the arising of feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness?

(4b) An ignorant, untaught ordinary person doesn't truly know the arising of form, its cessation, its gratification, its danger, or the escape from it. Not knowing this, he delights in form and praises it. Delighting in and praising form, he grasps; grasping serves as a condition for becoming; becoming as a condition for birth; birth as a condition for aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair. Thus this entire great mass of suffering comes into being.

(4c) [The same should be elaborated in full for feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness.]

(4d) This is called the arising of form, and the arising of feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness.

(5a) What is the cessation of form? What is the cessation of feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness?

(5b) A learned noble disciple truly knows the arising of form, its cessation, its gratification, its danger, and the escape from it. Knowing this, he does not delight in or praise form. Not delighting in or praising form, craving ceases; with the cessation of craving, grasping ceases; with the cessation of grasping, becoming ceases; with the cessation of becoming, birth ceases; with the cessation of birth, aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair cease. Thus this entire great mass of suffering comes to an end.

(5c) A learned noble disciple truly knows the arising of feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness—their cessation, gratification, danger, and escape. Knowing this, he does not delight in or praise consciousness. Not delighting in or praising consciousness, craving ceases; with the cessation of craving, grasping ceases; with the cessation of grasping, becoming ceases; with the cessation of becoming, birth ceases; with the cessation of birth, aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and despair cease. Thus this entire great mass of suffering comes to an end.

(5d) Bhikṣus, this is called the cessation of form, and the cessation of feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness.

(6) Bhikṣus, always cultivate and practice meditative contemplation to quiet the mind within."

(7) When the Buddha had finished speaking, the bhikṣus, having heard his words, rejoiced and put them into practice. (Yin 86)

(8) From observation through to full realization, the twelve sūtras likewise expound this at length. (Yin 87–97)(Guang 58)(Da 67)(Nei 57)

In this example, the Buddha uses the "five aggregates" and "dependent origination" in an interwoven way to reveal the forward, cyclic process: regarding form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness, one fails to truly know their origin, cessation, allure, danger, and escape; one clings to them, praises them, and thereby grasps them. From grasping as condition, existence arises; from existence as condition, birth arises; from birth as condition, aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and distress arise—and so this great mass of suffering comes to be. He then weaves together the reverse process of cessation: regarding the same five, one truly knows their origin, cessation, allure, danger, and escape, and no longer clings to or praises consciousness. With the fading of craving, grasping ceases; with the ceasing of grasping, existence ceases; with the ceasing of existence, birth ceases; with the ceasing of birth, aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and distress cease—and so this great mass of suffering comes to an end. This is a complex sūtra pattern. Add parables to it, and it becomes the most intricate of all.

The 3A, 3B, 4A, 4B, and 5 sūtra patterns noted above all illustrate the reverse process of dependent origination. This is the very heart of the Buddhist knowledge system, for the Dharma is not theory alone—it must be brought directly into practice in order to end suffering. Throughout the Āgama sūtras, the Buddha consistently emphasizes practice. And in the actual work of ending suffering, one inevitably follows the sequence of "path" and "fruit," as the following passages show:

(a) "Monks! If one knows form, sees it clearly, cuts it off, and is free from desire for it, then one is [able] to end suffering." (b) "The same holds for feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness: if one knows them, sees them clearly, cuts them off, and is free from desire for them, one is able to end suffering." (Taishō)

Here, knowing, seeing clearly, cutting off, and being free from desire with respect to form, feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness is the practice of the "path"; ending suffering is the "fruit."

(a) "What is the cessation of form? The cessation of feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness?" (b) "A learned noble disciple, when experiencing pleasant, painful, and neither pleasant nor painful feelings, observes their origin, cessation, allure, danger, and escape as they truly are. Observing thus, attachment to feeling ceases; with the ceasing of attachment, grasping ceases; with the ceasing of grasping, existence ceases; with the ceasing of existence, birth ceases; with the ceasing of birth, aging, death, sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and distress cease. And so this entire mass of suffering is fully extinguished." (c) "This is called the cessation of form, the cessation of feeling, perception, volitional formations, and consciousness." (d) "Therefore, monks, always cultivate and reflect in meditation, bringing the mind to inward stillness. A monk who abides in meditative reflection, with the mind still within, applying diligent effort, observes as it truly is." (Taishō 65)

Here, observing as they truly are the origin, cessation, allure, danger, and escape of pleasant, painful, and neutral feelings, and seeing through to the cessation of attachment to feeling, of grasping, of existence, of birth, of aging and death, and of sorrow, lamentation, pain, grief, and distress—this is the practice of the "path" and the attainment of the "fruit."

(1) Rectify one's bodily conduct, guard against the four verbal faults, keep a pure livelihood, and cultivate the noble precepts. (2a) Guard the sense doors and protect the mind with right mindfulness. When the eye sees a form, do not grasp at its features. If one lives without restraint at the eye faculty, worldly greed and grief, and unwholesome unskillful states, will continually leak into the mind; [one should] establish right restraint at the eye. (2b) The same holds for the ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind: one establishes right restraint at each. (3) Having fulfilled these noble precepts and well-guarded sense doors, one moves and turns, looks around, bends and stretches, sits and lies down, wakes and sleeps, speaks and is silent—all with wisdom and right understanding. (4) Having thus fulfilled the noble precepts, guarded the sense doors, and established right understanding and right mindfulness, one dwells in quietude and seclusion—in an empty place, under a tree, alone in a secluded room—sitting upright with right mindfulness, settling the mind without distraction. (5a) Cut off worldly [greed and grief]; abandon sensual craving; purify sensual craving. (5b) Cut off worldly ill will, sloth-and-torpor, restlessness-and-worry, and doubt; abandon each of them; purify each of them. (5c) Cut off the five hindrances: that which afflicts the mind, weakens wisdom, forms a basis of obstruction, and prevents progress toward nirvana. (6a) Therefore, abide contemplating the body in the body, with diligent effort, right understanding, and right mindfulness, to subdue worldly greed and grief. The same applies to feelings in feelings, mind in mind, and dharmas in dharmas. (Taishō 636)

Here, fulfilling the noble precepts, guarding the sense doors, establishing right understanding and right mindfulness, dwelling in quietude and seclusion, sitting upright with right mindfulness, settling the mind without distraction, and cutting off the five hindrances is the practice of the "path"; subduing worldly greed and grief is the "fruit."

(1a) What is the higher training in ethics? (1b) It is a monk who [has fulfilled the precepts], with little concentration and little wisdom. (1c) For each of the finer points of the precepts, he upholds and practices the training in precepts to the full. (1d) Knowing and seeing thus, he cuts off the three fetters: identity view, attachment to precepts and practices, and doubt. With these three fetters cut off, he attains the fruit of a stream-enterer—he does not fall into a lower realm, is firmly set on the path to full enlightenment, will pass through at most seven more lives among gods and humans, and reaches the end of suffering. (2a) What is the higher training in concentration? (2b) It is a monk who [has fulfilled the precepts], has fulfilled concentration, but has little wisdom. (2c) For each finer point of the precepts, if transgressed he makes amends, and he upholds and practices the training in precepts to the full. (2d) Knowing and seeing thus, he cuts off the five lower fetters: identity view, attachment to precepts and practices, doubt, sensual craving, and ill will. With these five lower fetters cut off, he attains the fruit of a non-returner and does not return to this world. This is called the higher training in concentration. (3a) What is the higher training in wisdom? (3b) It is a monk who has fulfilled the training in precepts, fulfilled the training in concentration, and fulfilled the training in wisdom. (3c) Knowing and seeing thus, his mind is freed from the defilements of sensual desire, of existence, and of ignorance; with the knowledge of liberation he knows: "Birth is exhausted; the holy life has been lived; what had to be done has been done; I know of no further state to come." This is called the higher training in wisdom. (Taishō 822)

Here, the steady cultivation of the higher trainings in ethics, concentration, and wisdom is the practice of the "path"; attaining liberation of mind, having done what had to be done, and knowing one will not return again—this is the "fruit." Within the path-section of the Saṃyukta Āgama, the Buddha puts it even more directly: by earnestly cultivating the four foundations of mindfulness and the seven factors of enlightenment, one attains the fruits of stream-enterer, once-returner, non-returner, and arhat:

(a) The Buddha told the monks: "If one earnestly cultivates the four foundations of mindfulness, one will attain four fruits and four kinds of benefit. What are these four? (b) They are the fruit of stream-entry, the fruit of once-returning, the fruit of non-returning, and the fruit of arhatship." (Taishō 618)

(a) "Just so, monks, when one has cultivated the seven factors of enlightenment, and cultivated them extensively, one attains four fruits and four kinds of benefit. What are these four? (b) They are the fruit of stream-entry, the fruit of once-returning, the fruit of non-returning, and the fruit of arhatship." (Taishō 735)

Therefore, within the Buddhist knowledge system, to practice in accord with the sequence of path and fruit is simply to follow the Buddha's original intention. The sequence of "path" and "fruit" laid out above is the reverse process of dependent origination. Most of what the Buddha teaches in the Āgama sūtras belongs to this category, and this is where the weight of the Buddhist knowledge system lies. Because the sequence of "path" and "fruit" is, at bottom, a matter of cultivating wisdom in order to attain the fruit, it can rightly be folded into the knowledge system of "wisdom."

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VIII. Conclusion

What follows has examined the most essential knowledge system of the Dharma as it stood in the Buddha's own time. We began with the thematic content of the Āgama sūtras, then, following the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra's "Section on Summarizing Matters," grouped it under two headings—"object" and "wisdom." We then drew on sūtra passages to show that what the Buddha taught falls, broadly, into these two systems. From there we turned to the appearance of "alternative designations" and "dharma compendia," and finally, working through the Saṃyukta Āgama text by text, we examined sūtras with set phrases as well as the various structural patterns (sūtra types) in order to glimpse the distinctive way the Buddha transmitted his knowledge system.

In short, the Buddhist knowledge system uses "object and wisdom" to encompass what is sometimes set out as "object, practice, fruit"—or, equivalently, "faculty, path, fruit." The "object" system includes the aggregate category (the five aggregates), the sense-base category (the six sense bases), and the origination category (covering dependent origination, the four nutriments, the four noble truths, the elements, and feeling)—seven items in all. The "wisdom" system includes the path category (covering the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right exertions, the four bases of spiritual power, the five faculties, the five powers, the seven factors of enlightenment, the noble eightfold path, mindfulness of breathing, the three trainings, and the four assurances)—ten items in all. So the "object (faculty)" side contains seven items—aggregates, sense bases, dependent origination, nutriments, truths, elements, and feeling—while the "practice (path) and fruit" side contains ten items: the four foundations of mindfulness, the four right exertions, the four bases of spiritual power, the faculties, the powers, the seven factors of enlightenment, the noble eightfold path, mindfulness of breathing, the three trainings, and the four assurances. Together, seventeen items. Each can, in turn, open out into more detailed Buddhist teachings. This is the system of Buddhist knowledge the Buddha transmitted through the Saṃyukta Āgama. The compilations of "alternative designations" and "dharma compendia" play a supporting role in coming to grips with it.

(Buddhist Library Newsletter, Issue 31, 2002)