Upasaka Zhuang Chunjiang: Fundamental Understanding of Buddhist Practice, Chapter 7: Mahayana Bodhisattva Practice, Section 1: Bodhisattva Practice and the Development of Mahayana Buddhism

The Difference Between the Buddha and the Arhat

Shakyamuni Buddha was a fully liberated being. As the early Buddhist scriptures record, among the three types of liberated beings—the Buddha, the Pratyekabuddha, and the Arhat—only the Buddha is described as having attained anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi (translated as "unsurpassed, perfect, complete enlightenment," or simply as "perfect enlightenment" or "universal enlightenment"). Though the Buddha at times referred to "the Tathāgata, the Worthy One, the Perfectly Enlightened One attaining saṃbodhi"[1], he almost always spoke of attaining anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi. When he taught his disciples, though, he only instructed them to realize saṃbodhi[2] (translated as "right enlightenment"), and none of his disciples ever claimed to have attained "unsurpassed, perfect, complete enlightenment" or to have become a Pratyekabuddha. The goal and final fruit of the Buddha’s disciples were always described as realizing saṃbodhi and attaining arhatship. No liberated disciple was ever said to have attained "unsurpassed, perfect, complete enlightenment"—that is, to have realized Buddhahood. This was true even for Mahāmaudgalyāyana, foremost in supernatural powers, and Śāriputra, foremost in wisdom. This clear distinction runs through all the early scriptures, with no confusion between the two.

Why, then, did Shakyamuni Buddha only teach his disciples to become arhats, not Buddhas like himself? From the standpoint of liberation, this can be read as meaning the Buddha and the arhat are one and the same. Or it can be seen as a reflection of the prevailing spirit of the age, which centered on "enlightenment and liberation"—the Buddha was simply working within (and constrained by) this mainstream current as he taught the Dharma.

No matter how we interpret this, though, there was a clear difference between Shakyamuni Buddha, who attained anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi, and his noble arhat disciples, who attained saṃbodhi. Putting other differences aside for a moment, take skillful means: the ability to teach in ways that suit the capacities of different beings, benefiting them accordingly, and the power to attract and inspire sentient beings. Even among individual arhat disciples, these capacities varied wildly. For example, the Venerable Cūḍapanthaka was not skilled at teaching the Dharma or drawing followers[3], while the Venerables Mahāmaudgalyāyana and Śāriputra often turned the wheel of the Dharma on the Buddha’s behalf, and were deeply respected and loved by members of the Saṅgha. Even so, these two venerables could not match the Buddha’s capacity and accomplishment in this regard.

This gap between the Buddha and his arhat disciples didn’t draw much notice or questioning before the Buddha’s passing, most likely because disciples could still see him face to face and hear the Dharma directly from him. After the Buddha passed into parinirvāṇa, people’s reverence for him grew by the day. We can see this in the ever-growing body of material that circulated about the Buddha’s relics, his physical remains, the sites of his travels and teachings, his biographies, and even stories of his past lives, all of which became richer and more abundant as time went on. As this reverence grew, the image of the human Buddha preserved in early tradition slowly faded from collective memory, replaced by an idealized figure of a Buddha who was all-powerful and present everywhere. In turn, the gap between the arhat disciples and the Buddha grew wider in the eyes of devotees, who increasingly saw arhats as far inferior to the Buddha.

The Development of the Bodhisattva Path

Why was Prince Siddhārtha able to attain anuttarā-samyak-saṃbodhi and become a Buddha, while the Buddha’s disciples could only realize saṃbodhi and become arhats? This question steadily gained attention among the Buddha’s followers after his passing, and they found a satisfying answer in the legendary stories of the Buddha’s practice in his past lives. It was said that in a distant past life, the Buddha had made a profound, unwavering vow to attain Buddhahood. From then on, in every subsequent life, he practiced diligently for the benefit of all beings: generosity, compassion, patience, and ethical conduct, as well as meditation and wisdom (prajñā) to build the unshakable power to end afflictions. After accumulating perfect merit and deep wisdom over eons, he was finally able, when conditions were ripe, to draw on this store of wisdom and attain awakening without a teacher in an age where the Dharma had disappeared from the world. He directly contemplated the twelve links of dependent origination in forward and reverse order, and thereby realized liberation. Through the perfection of merit he had accumulated over many lifetimes, he was able to draw in vast numbers of beings, deeply plant the Dharma in the world, and benefit countless sentient beings.

In emulation of the Buddha’s own path of practice in his past lives—one that aimed at full Buddhahood rather than just personal liberation and nirvāṇa, and placed compassion for others above self-serving practice—a new path was forged. This path grew and matured over time, and by around 50 BCE had become the dominant current of thought in Indian Buddhism. Its adherents called themselves "Bodhisattvas" and followers of the "Mahāyāna" (the Great Vehicle), to set their path apart from earlier Buddhist traditions.

"Bodhisattva" is an abbreviation of bodhisattva, which can be translated as "awakening being," or more precisely, "a being who vigorously and diligently seeks unsurpassed bodhi (awakening)"[4]. Therefore, anyone who practices with the aspiration to attain Buddhahood can be called a Bodhisattva. And the practices undertaken by a Bodhisattva constitute the Bodhisattva Path. How did the content of the Bodhisattva Path come to be developed? It was derived primarily from the legendary accounts of Shakyamuni Buddha’s past lives before he attained Buddhahood, since his practice from the time he first vowed to become a Buddha represents the finest model of the Bodhisattva ideal. "Mahayana," transliterated from Sanskrit as Mahāyāna, originally referred to a large vehicle capable of carrying many passengers. By extension, it came to mean the practice of attaining Buddhahood in order to liberate vast numbers of beings—that is, the teachings and methods for pursuing the path to Buddhahood[5]. The concepts of "Mahayana" and "Bodhisattva" are inextricably linked. One can say that the thought of the Bodhisattva Path propelled the formation of Mahayana Buddhism.

The Six Pāramitās Emphasizing Compassion

Compiled from the legendary accounts of Shakyamuni Buddha’s past lives, the Bodhisattva Path covers many different areas of practice. Among these, the Six Pāramitās with their focus on compassion; the practices of Buddha-recollection, transference of merit, and repentance, centered on faith; and the prajñā teachings, focused on deep contemplation, all went on to shape the development of Mahāyāna practice in major ways.

"Pāramitā" is often translated as "perfection" or "crossing over," referring to "reaching the other shore." While "reaching the other shore" originally meant liberation from the cycle of birth and death, in this context it adds the nuance of doing so perfectly—that is, attaining full Buddhahood. The content of the pāramitās was compiled from the many legendary jātaka accounts of Shakyamuni Buddha’s past lives. At first, traditions varied across different Buddhist schools, but the six practices of generosity, ethical discipline, patience, diligence, meditation, and wisdom eventually won widespread acceptance among Buddhists, becoming the standard "Six Pāramitās." These six practices are bound together by a shared spirit of compassion for all beings, forming an interconnected, integrated path of practice.

These six practices fall roughly into two groups: generosity, ethical discipline, and patience are merit-based practices that directly benefit others (the altruistic group), while meditation and wisdom are self-focused practices that calm one’s own afflictions to build a foundation for helping others. Diligence applies to both groups. Apart from generosity, the other five align closely with the ethical discipline, concentration, and wisdom of the traditional Noble Eightfold Path. The core difference is that the Six Pāramitās explicitly require every practice to prioritize the benefit of sentient beings.

Generosity itself divides into three main forms: material generosity, generosity of fearlessness, and generosity of Dharma. Material generosity means using material goods (food, clothing, money, and so on), physical labor, mental effort, even offering one’s own body or sacrificing one’s life to help others, with no expectation of reward. Generosity of fearlessness means approaching others with a gentle heart, ranging from the basic act of not harming any being, to actively and unconditionally helping dispel others’ fears. Generosity of Dharma means guiding others to understand, accept, and practice the Dharma, without seeking anything in return, so that they may find an end to their afflictions. Though all three forms exist, the term "generosity" as it is commonly used tends to center on material generosity[6]. In the Buddha’s time, he often taught generosity to lay practitioners[7]; it was counted as one of the core elements of the "teaching of uprightness," a preliminary step for practicing dependent origination, the Four Noble Truths, the Noble Eightfold Path, and other "essential teachings of the true Dharma"[8]. Why was generosity taught more to lay followers than to monastic disciples? Traditional monastic practice involved renouncing all personal possessions and living on alms, making material generosity practically impossible. Meanwhile, generosity of fearlessness and generosity of Dharma were already woven into monastic life through precept observance, the practice of patience, and teaching the Dharma to others. Since the legendary stories of the Buddha’s past lives were not limited to his monastic identities, generosity (especially material generosity) became a key virtue emphasized in the Bodhisattva Path.

Buddha-Recollection, Transference of Merit, and Repentance Emphasizing Faith

Buddha-recollection, transference of merit, and repentance are Mahāyāna practices that developed to suit faith-oriented practitioners, or "those whose practice is rooted in trust." These practices are closely tied to the idea that "there are Buddhas present in all ten directions at once." This concept differs from the traditional view that there were six Buddhas in the past[9], Shakyamuni Buddha in the present, and Maitreya Buddha in the future[10]—the idea that "there cannot be two Buddhas in the same world"[11]. This new view emerged as people’s reverence for and reliance on the Buddha grew in the wake of Shakyamuni’s passing.

In the early scriptures, Buddha-recollection was listed as one of the "Six Recollections" (recollection of the Buddha, Dharma, Saṅgha, generosity, ethical discipline, and the devas), and was primarily taught to lay practitioners. By reciting the Buddha’s ten epithets and contemplating his perfect merits (those of Shakyamuni Buddha), practitioners could move from admiration to emulation[12], and from reliance on the Buddha to inner peace[13], dispelling fear in the process. After the idea that "there are Buddhas present in all ten directions at once" took hold, Buddha-recollection practice evolved further. The object of recollection expanded from Shakyamuni Buddha alone to all the Buddhas of the ten directions. The scope of practice grew beyond "contemplating the true nature of the Buddha’s merits" to include "contemplating the Buddha’s physical form," a practice that arose alongside the creation of Buddha images, as well as "reciting the Buddha’s name" with the aspiration to be reborn in a pure land, and single-pointed concentration on the Buddha. These developments gradually made Buddha-recollection a more widespread, accessible practice (though not an easy one to master)[14], turning it into a popular skillful means to draw people into Dharma practice[15].

Transference of merit (pāriṇāmanā) is the practice of redirecting the merit you have cultivated and dedicating it[16] to other beings, so that all may share in its fruits. At its core, it is an expression of the spirit of compassion and generosity.

Repentance originally meant regretting wrongdoing (mostly precept violations) in order to restore clarity of mind and avoid the restlessness and remorse that can block practice. For monastics, confession of serious precept violations traditionally took place at the Saṅgha’s biweekly uposatha (the gathering for reciting precepts, confessing, and conducting communal business), as well as on pravāraṇā day at the end of the annual rains retreat[17], in front of the full assembled community[18]. Those who had committed only minor infractions could confess privately to a single virtuous monk, and for even more minor lapses, one could confess and repent in one’s own heart.

For lay practitioners, the purpose of repentance was the same as for monastics: to restore clarity of mind and remove obstacles to practice. But since lay practitioners have no formal communal structure, they might confess directly to the person they have harmed. Alternatively, they might confess to the Buddha, a monk, or their teacher. Of course, for minor matters, one can also repent silently in one’s own heart. After Shakyamuni Buddha’s passing, under the influence of the idea that "there are Buddhas present in all ten directions at once," the standard form of repentance gradually shifted to confessing before a Buddha image[19]. The focus of repentance also moved from specific, concrete precept violations to abstract karmic obstacles from past lives—a new adaptation and development not seen in early Buddhism[20].

Can karmic obstacles from past lives be cleared through repentance before the Buddha? The early scriptures teach that karma created by intentional actions will "inevitably bear its consequences"[21]. But if, before those consequences ripen, there are enough causes and conditions to "cultivate the body, cultivate ethical discipline, cultivate the mind, and cultivate wisdom," the negative effects can be lessened—just as a pinch of salt is diluted by the full waters of the Ganges[22]. So karmic obstacles can be transformed through the practice of "cultivating the body, ethical discipline, the mind, and wisdom," but they cannot be completely eliminated (made to vanish). For example, during the Buddha’s time, King Ajātaśatru of Magadha killed his father to seize the throne, committing the five grave heinous crimes of parricide. Though he was able to repent sincerely and had the chance to hear and practice the Dharma, this karmic obstacle still prevented him from attaining any stage of realization. He could not escape the karmic consequence of rebirth in hell—but the wholesome karma he earned from hearing and practicing the Dharma diluted the weight of his bad karma, so he would "suffer the heavy consequence in a lighter form," and not have to endure the torments of hell for long[23].

Prajñā Emphasizing Profound Contemplation

As the Mahāyāna Bodhisattva Path developed, another stream of practice emerged from forest-dwelling (araṇya) monks: the prajñā teachings, which emphasize deep contemplation and direct realization. The prajñā teachings are defined above all by their exposition of "the meaning of emptiness." They reject the idea of "intrinsic nature" (svabhāva) that had grown increasingly popular after the early Buddhist schools formed, and hold that all things lack inherent nature, that one should not dwell in any state or view, and that one should be free of all deluded attachment. These ideas align completely with the early scriptures’ teachings on dependent origination and the Three Dharma Seals. But while expounding the meaning of emptiness, the prajñā teachings also emphasize the Bodhisattva’s compassionate vows, weaving generosity, ethical discipline, and the other pāramitās into the prajñā pāramitā, with prajñā as the unifying principle[24].

Distinctive Features of the Mahayana Bodhisattva Path

The compassion-centered six pāramitā practices, the faith- and aspiration-focused practices of buddhānusmṛti (recollection of the Buddha), merit dedication, and repentance, and the profound prajñā contemplation that emphasizes dependent origination and emptiness wisdom are the three major currents from which Mahayana bodhisattva practice originated and developed. Together with the aspiration to attain full buddhahood, these form the three core features and prerequisites of bodhisattva practice: arousing the bodhi aspiration, engaging in acts of great compassion, and realizing the wisdom of emptiness. This is precisely what the scriptures describe as "aligning one's intent with the attainment of omniscience, placing great compassion at the forefront of all action, and practicing non-apprehension as skillful means"[25]. "Omniscience" refers to the Buddha's fully awakened state, while "aligning one's intent" means keeping one's own intentions in step with the Buddha's accomplishment — in other words, following the Buddha's example, which expands into the aspiration to attain buddhahood itself: the "bodhi aspiration." "Placing great compassion at the forefront" means making compassion the highest guiding principle for all action. Compassion is the act of bringing joy to others and relieving their suffering; it is directed outward, toward others. Thus great compassion means placing others' benefit before one's own. By acting for the benefit of others, one directly realizes that dependent origination has no inherent nature. Through the wisdom (skillful means) that sees all dharmas arising dependently as devoid of any self-nature, one lets go of the view of self, along with the mistaken views that things have inherent, permanent, or independent existence. In this way, one dispels afflictions, purifies the ego, realizes the wisdom of emptiness, and thereby completes liberation from birth and death and fulfills the buddha path — the full expression of self-benefit.

The Thought of the Three Major Mahāyāna Systems

The teaching that all phenomena are empty was systematically expounded by Bodhisattva Nāgārjuna in the 3rd century CE, after which it developed into its own distinct school. Ancient Chinese masters referred to it as the "School of Destroying Characteristics"[26]; the modern Master Taixu called it the "School of Dharma-nature and Empty Wisdom"[27], while Master Yinshun named it the "System of Empty Nature and Mere Designation"[28].

After the 4th century CE, Bodhisattva Asaṅga built on this Mahayana philosophical foundation, drawing on ideas from the Sarvāstivāda, Sautrāntika Darṣṭāntika, and Saṃmitīya schools[29]. He rejected the claim that "all phenomena are empty of self-nature," arguing that the "true, ineffable self-nature" revealed through emptiness cannot be said to be nonexistent[30]. Taking the defiled ālaya as his basis, he expounded the teachings that "the three realms are mind-only" and "all dharmas are consciousness-only," forming a second distinct school. Ancient masters called this the "School of Dharma Characteristics"; Master Taixu named it the "School of Dharma Characteristics and Consciousness-Only," while Master Yinshun referred to it as the "System of Deluded Consciousness-Only."

Roughly contemporaneous with this development, the tathāgatagarbha teaching arose alongside a flourishing revival of Sanskrit literature in India starting in the 3rd century CE. It taught that all beings inherently possess the pure buddha-virtues of the tathāgata — the buddha-nature (buddha self-nature). This teaching circulated in scriptural form; though no specific promulgators are recorded in India, it undeniably spread widely and exerted deep influence, forming the third major system of Mahāyāna thought. Ancient masters called this the "School of Dharma-nature"; Master Taixu named it the "School of Dharma-realm and Perfect Awakening," while Master Yinshun termed it the "System of True and Eternal Mind-Only."

At first, this system — which held that practice should be rooted in the pure, true tathāgatagarbha — stood in direct opposition to the consciousness-only thought that took the defiled ālaya as its basis. But through mutual critique and eventual accommodation, a synthesis emerged: the originally defiled ālaya-vijñāna came to be identified with pure buddha-nature, and the tathāgatagarbha evolved into the idealist "tathāgatagarbha-mind" teaching[31].

All three of these schools of thought had long, far-reaching influence within Indian Buddhism. The third, in particular — the teaching of inherent buddha-nature — went on to dominate Chinese Buddhism after the Tang dynasty (excluding the Tang period itself) and Tibetan Buddhism, becoming the dominant current of thought in both regions (though contemporary mainstream Tibetan Buddhism often identifies as "Prāsaṅgika-Madhyamaka," in reality both traditions are interwoven, with the inherent-buddha-nature view as the prevailing current).

If we look at this through the lens of dependent origination’s universal scope and its core principle — "this exists because that exists; this does not exist because that does not exist" — all of existence is existence by way of dependent origination. As existence that arises dependently, it can't contain any self-nature marked by independence, permanence, or singular, self-contained existence[32]. It is therefore just as difficult to affirm that beings "originally and fully possess" a "pure and true" buddha-nature. Even the idealist teachings that "the three realms are mind-only" and "all dharmas are consciousness-only" do not fully align with the dependent origination principle of "this exists because that exists," for mind, mentation, and consciousness cannot grow, expand[33], or function at all without relying on the other four aggregates: form, feeling, perception, and formations. At most, mind, mentation, and consciousness play a guiding[34] rather than a dominating role in the functions of body and mind.

That said, the teaching of inherent buddha-nature has the clear advantage of being accessible and easy to understand, and it can help build faith in Buddhist practice. It belongs to the category of "skillful means for generating virtue" (the siddhānta of arousing goodness) that leads people to bring forth wholesome intentions. It has been warmly received by people everywhere, and remains a major current of thought in the Buddhist world today. From the standpoint of encouraging people to turn toward the buddha path, it naturally has its own positive, stage-appropriate function. But from the perspective of the full scope and essential core of the Dharma, once this stage-appropriate function has served its purpose, one should continue to advance toward the "ultimate-meaning siddhānta" of dependent origination and non-self.

Notes

[1] "The Tathāgata, the Worthy One, the Fully Awakened One — one who, without having previously heard the teaching, awakens on their own, realizes the truth through the present Dharma-body, attains supreme awakening, and in future ages can teach the true Dharma and awaken the śrāvakas…" Saṃyukta Āgama, Sutta 684

[2] "Bhikkhu, this is called the fruit of stream-entry: one does not fall into unfortunate destinies, and is firmly directed toward supreme awakening…" Saṃyukta Āgama, Sutta 61, etc.

[3] "The Buddhist sūtras say: Cūḷapanthaka had slow spiritual faculties. When taught to recite scriptures, he would remember one line only to forget the next. But the Buddha, out of compassion, patiently taught him and encouraged his learning. Under the Buddha's compassionate guidance and encouragement, he eventually attained arhatship. Though he attained the holy fruit, he could not teach the Dharma. When asked to give a discourse, he could only say: 'Life is impermanent and suffering' — aside from that, he could only display spiritual powers. Was what he said wrong? Of course not. But he lacked learning, and so even after awakening he could not expound the Dharma. The Buddha's disciple Śāriputra was different. Before leaving the household life, he was already well-versed in the Vedas. After going forth and awakening to the truth, he taught the Dharma to others: on a single principle, he could speak continuously for seven days and seven nights without ever exhausting it." The Buddha in the Human World, pp. 285–286, by Master Yinshun.

[4] "Regarding the meaning of bodhisattva: Studies in Early Mahāyāna Buddhism cites Har Dayal's work outlining seven meanings of the term, as well as the Tibetan tradition that defines a bodhisattva as one who courageously seeks awakening. According to Buddhist tradition: sattva is a familiar Buddhist term, translated as "sentient being" — a living being endowed with consciousness or attachment. A bodhisattva is a sentient being who seeks (supreme) awakening; this definition is agreed upon by most scholars." The Origins and Development of Early Mahāyāna Buddhism, p. 130, by Master Yinshun.

[5] Excerpted from Encyclopedia of Chinese Buddhism, p. 665; Fo Guang Buddhist Dictionary, p. 808.

[6] "The Blessed One said to Mahānāma: A lay follower who is fully accomplished in generosity is one who was once bound by the taint of stinginess, but has now freed their mind from it, dwells in the non-householder life, practices giving that brings liberation, gives diligently and consistently, delights in relinquishing possessions, and gives impartially." Saṃyukta Āgama, Sutta 927

[7] "The Blessed One said to the brahmin: There are four qualities a householder can cultivate that lead to well-being and happiness in the afterlife. What are the four? Completeness of faith, completeness of virtue, completeness of generosity, and completeness of wisdom… What is completeness of generosity? It means a good person, free from the taint of stinginess, dwelling in the household life, practices giving that brings liberation, gives personally with their own hands, delights in practicing relinquishment, and gives with an impartial mind — this is called a householder’s completeness of generosity…" Saṃyukta Āgama, Sutta 91

[8] "Then the Blessed One taught the layman Upāli… following the method of all Buddhas: he first taught the right-path Dharma that brings joy to the listener, speaking of giving, of virtue, of the path to heaven; criticizing desire as a disaster, birth and death as defiled, and praising freedom from desire as excellent, and the path factors as pure. After the Blessed One taught him in this way, he knew that Upāli had a joyful heart, a fulfilled heart, a pliant heart, a patient heart, an upward-aspiring heart, a one-pointed heart, a doubt-free heart, and an unhindered heart — he had the capacity and strength to receive the true Dharma, the essential teaching expounded by all Buddhas. The Blessed One then taught him suffering, origination, cessation, and the path." Madhyama Āgama, Sutta 133. The same account appears in Madhyama Āgama Suttas 62, 38, and 28.

[9] "At that time, the Blessed One told the bhikkhus: Formerly, when the Buddha Vipaśyin had not yet attained perfect awakening… Just as the Buddha Vipaśyin taught, so too did the Buddhas Śikhin, Viśvabhū, Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, and Kāśyapa teach." Saṃyukta Āgama, Sutta 369

[10] "The Blessed One said to the bhikkhus: In the distant future, when the human lifespan reaches eighty thousand years, a Buddha named Maitreya will arise — the Tathāgata, the Worthy One, the Fully Awakened One, Perfect in Knowledge and Conduct, Sugata, Knower of the World, Unsurpassed One, Tamer of Beings, Teacher of Gods and Humans, Blessed One…" Madhyama Āgama, Sutta 66

[11] "The Blessed One answered:… Ānanda, if there were two Tathāgatas in the world at the same time, that would never be the case; if there is one Tathāgata in the world, that is necessarily so." Madhyama Āgama, Sutta 181

[12] "The Blessed One said to Mahānāma: If a bhikkhu is still in the training stage, seeking what has not yet been attained, advancing steadily on the path to peaceful nirvāṇa, then at that time they should cultivate the six recollections, up to the attainment of nirvāṇa… What are the six recollections? They are: the noble disciple recollects the Tathāgata — 'Thus the Blessed One is: Worthy, Fully Awakened, Perfect in Knowledge and Conduct, Sugata, Knower of the World, Unsurpassed One, Tamer of Beings, Teacher of Gods and Humans, Buddha, Blessed One.' When the noble disciple recollects thus, the fetter of greed does not arise, nor do anger and delusion. Their mind becomes upright; they grasp the meaning of the Tathāgata, and the true Dharma of the Tathāgata, and feel gladness of heart toward the Tathāgata and the Tathāgata’s true Dharma. Feeling gladness, they rejoice; rejoicing, the body grows tranquil; the body tranquil, they experience happiness; experiencing happiness, the mind becomes concentrated. With the mind concentrated, the noble disciple moves among dangerous beings without obstruction, enters the stream of the Dharma, up to nirvāṇa." Saṃyukta Āgama, Sutta 931

[13] "Blessed One! My limbs are falling apart, the four directions seem blurred, and all I previously learned I have now completely forgotten. I have heard the Blessed One is wandering among human settlements. When will I ever see the Blessed One and the learned bhikkhus again? The Blessed One said to the Sakyan Nandaka: Whether you see the Tathāgata or not; whether you see the learned bhikkhus or not, you should always practice the six recollections." Saṃyukta Āgama, Sutta 858. Similar passages appear in Saṃyukta Āgama Suttas 859 and 860.

[14] "The difficult path is the path of toil; the easy path is the path of joy — the meaning of the treatise is perfectly clear. It has no connection to how quickly or slowly one attains buddhahood." Pure Land and Chan, p. 69, by Master Yinshun.

[15] "The new expedient means that arose with Mahāyāna, according to the sūtras, include: building stūpas and temples, offering ritual adornments, paying homage to the Buddha, recollecting the Buddha, and praising the Buddha." The Buddha in the Human World, p. 69, by Master Yinshun.

"Speaking of the easy path, [the sūtras state]: 'recollect the buddhas of the ten directions and call their names,' 'there are also Amitābha and other buddhas, whom you should revere, bow to, and call by name,' and 'recollect and bow, praise them in verse.'" Pure Land and Chan, p. 69, by Master Yinshun.

[16] "'Giving' (dāna) means "giving with a good heart" — this is the ancient translation for the term now rendered as "dedication of merit" (pariṇāma)." The Origins and Development of Early Mahāyāna Buddhism, p. 575, by Master Yinshun.

[17] "A fixed ceremony in Indian monastic life. It refers to the final day of the annual summer retreat, when the monastic assembly, regarding three categories of offense — what has been seen, heard, or suspected — mutually points out each other’s transgressions, repents, and cultivates merit." Encyclopedia of Chinese Buddhism, p. 21684, bottom.

"The pravāraṇā ceremony involves each person asking others to point out their own faults as fully as possible, so that they may repent in accordance with the Dharma and attain purity." The Origins and Development of Early Mahāyāna Buddhism, p. 192, by Master Yinshun.

[18] "Repentance has been highly valued for practitioners since the time of early Buddhism. In addition to repenting at any time, there were also periodic repentance ceremonies: the poṣadha held every half-month, and the pravāraṇā held once a year after the summer retreat." Encyclopedia of Chinese Buddhism, p. 5904, bottom.

[19] "Monastic repentance was traditionally conducted within the saṅgha. How should lay disciples practice repentance? According to the Ekottara Āgama, lay disciples who undertook the eight-precept fast (upavāsa) confessed their transgressions before the fourfold assembly, with a preceptor guiding them in the practice of repentance… Conducting repentance before the general fourfold assembly was not sufficient for some people (especially those dissatisfied with the monastic regulations). Under the pressure of extremely heavy karma that could be repented and needed to be repented, the belief in the present existence of the buddhas of the ten directions led to the development of new forms of repentance." The Origins and Development of Early Mahāyāna Buddhism, p. 573, by Master Yinshun.

"For those undertaking the eight-precept fast, whether men or women, confessing transgressions before the fourfold assembly or before bhikkhus may also have been unsuitable. The Sībeijing states: 'Morning and evening, burn incense and light lamps, bow to the Three Jewels, repent before the ten directions, and revere the fourfold assembly.' Individual repentance before the Buddha (before a stūpa or buddha-image) likely developed from the repentance practices of lay precept-holders." The Origins and Development of Early Mahāyāna Buddhism, p. 222, by Master Yinshun.

[20] "…Thus the practice of repenting karmic obstacles accumulated since beginningless time (which later evolved into repentance of the "three obstacles" since beginningless time: the obstacle of afflictions, the obstacle of karma, and the obstacle of retribution) was not present in early Buddhism. The Mahāyāna method of repentance, by contrast, centers precisely on repenting all evil karma accumulated since beginningless time." The Origins and Development of Early Mahāyāna Buddhism, p. 573, by Master Yinshun.

[21] "At that time, the Blessed One told the bhikkhus: If one intentionally commits an action, I say that one will certainly experience its result — whether in this life or in a future life. If one does not intentionally commit an action, I say that one will not necessarily experience its result." Madhyama Āgama, Sutta 15

[22] "At that time, the World Honored One addressed the bhikkhus: 'All beings reap the consequences of whatever actions they perform. …… How is it that some people do unwholesome deeds and inevitably face hell realm as their retribution? It is said: there is a person who does not cultivate bodily conduct, does not uphold the precepts, does not train the mind, does not develop wisdom, and has a very short lifespan. …… How is it that some people do unwholesome deeds and inevitably face retribution in this very life? It is said: there is a person who cultivates bodily conduct, upholds the precepts, trains the mind, develops wisdom, and has an extremely long lifespan. ……'" Madhyama Āgama, Sutra 1 (Zhong Ahan Di Yi Jing)

[23] "According to the Buddha Dharma, repentance does not erase karma, but weakens its power, so that unwholesome karma does not become an obstacle to progress on the path. For example, the five heinous acts are called 'karmic hindrances': no matter how one practices, one definitely cannot attain fruition. The Sāmaññaphala Sutta states: 'If King Ajātasattu had not killed his father, upon hearing the Buddha’s teaching, he would have attained the "pure Dharma eye" (realized the first fruition) right then and there on his seat. Now that King Ajātasattu has repented his wrongdoing, his offense is only diminished, and the weight of his grave fault is partially lifted.' Both the Ekottara Āgama and the Vinaya state that King Ajātasattu attained 'rootless faith' or 'unshakable faith'. Because the heinous crime was lessened through repentance, he still could not attain fruition. The King Ajātasattu Sutra states: After King Ajātasattu listened to the Dharma, he attained 'faithful acceptance' or 'compliant acceptance', which is equivalent to 'rootless faith' and 'unshakable faith'. Although the king had some realization, he still had to fall into Bindu Hell, but he would not suffer there, and could quickly be reborn in heaven. What the King Ajātasattu Sutra says reflects the position that while the nature of offenses is empty, cause and effect remain inviolable; repentance can only lighten the retribution (heavy offenses bear lighter fruit). This is not far off from the original Buddha Dharma. The King Ajātasattu Sutra also states that a criminal who killed his mother, due to Mañjuśrī’s guidance, saw the Buddha, heard the Dharma, and attained the fruition of arhatship. This contradicts both the Buddha Dharma and the account of King Ajātasattu’s repentance, and is likely a later interpolation." From The Origin and Development of Early Mahāyāna Buddhism, p. 977, by Master Yin Shun.

[24] "Prajñā (wisdom) is the core foundation of the Buddha Dharma, as it holds and sustains all wholesome qualities. So the focus on Prajñāpāramitā in early Prajñā texts doesn’t mean bodhisattvas have no need to practice generosity and the other pāramitās—only that Prajñāpāramitā is the primary focus. Thus, the 'lower-tier Prajñā' texts mention the six pāramitās, starting with generosity, closing with the line: 'To practice Prajñāpāramitā is to be fully endowed with all pāramitās.' In the 'middle-tier Prajñā' texts, the six pāramitās are a recurring theme, and it is repeatedly emphasized that the six pāramitās are fully embodied in one another." From The Origin and Development of Early Mahāyāna Buddhism, p. 653, by Master Yin Shun.

[25] "The Buddha said to Subhūti: All bodhisattva mahāsattvas are likewise. With a mind aligned with the wisdom of omniscience, taking great compassion as their foremost guide, and using the principle of no-attainment as their skillful means, they bring immeasurable, uncountable, boundless sentient beings to establish them in generosity, progressing all the way to unexcelled, complete enlightenment. Thus, though bodhisattvas engage in action, their actions have no intrinsic reality. Why? Because the nature and characteristics of all dharmas are like illusions." Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra (Taisho 7 · 70m)

[26] "In general, Mahāyāna teachings have three main divisions: the Dharma Characteristics (Yogācāra) and Refutation of Characteristics (Mādhyamaka) schools, both of which are the origin points of the gradual teaching framework. The two masters Jiexian and Zhiguang each built a three-period teaching system grounded in a single sūtra, and the two systems mutually critiqued one another. Followers of each school grounded their doctrinal positions in the sūtras of the Dharma Nature school; the Dharma Nature school spans both sudden and gradual teaching approaches." A Brief Commentary on the Sūtra of Perfect Enlightenment, by Master Zongmi of the Tang Dynasty (Taisho 39 · 525l)

[27] "Mahāyāna schools can be briefly divided into three categories: First, the School of Contemplative Wisdom of Dharma-Emptiness…… This school centers on refuting the clinging to dharmas common in Hīnayāna traditions, so it takes contemplative wisdom of dharma-emptiness as its core tenet. Second, the Dharma Characteristics Yogācāra School…… What this school teaches is that all objects of the consciousnesses are mere manifestations of consciousness; the objects of consciousness are all dharma characteristics, which are transformations of consciousness, hence it is called the Dharma Characteristics Yogācāra School. Third, the School of True Suchness Pure Merit…… What this school teaches is the essence that arises and is revealed by the contemplative wisdom of dharma-emptiness, the fundamental reality that is clarified and realized by the Dharma Characteristics Yogācāra School. It encompasses all pure, unconditioned, wholesome dharmas, whether conditioned or unconditioned, and is also called the Tathāgatagarbha, the Treasury of the Dharma Realm, among other names. This school particularly highlights the merits of Buddhahood, and includes traditions such as the Huayan and Vajrayāna schools." From The Complete Works of Master Taixu, Section 6: Yogācāra Studies, pp. 463–464.

"Mahāyāna Dharma is vast, so it should be divided and integrated into these three schools to avoid one-sided attachment. I discussed this in my 1923 work A General Deliberation on Buddha Dharma. However, the terminology I used at the time had some slight differences; now I will provide a clear, definitive explanation as follows: First, the School of Dharma-Nature and Empty Wisdom…… Second, the Dharma Characteristics Yogācāra School…… Third, the School of Dharma Realm Perfect Enlightenment……" From The Complete Works of Master Taixu, Section 1: How I Classify and Integrate All Buddha Dharma, pp. 523–525.

[28] "The three main Mahāyāna lineages are: the Mādhyamaka (emptiness of inherent existence, mere nominal designation) lineage, the Yogācāra (delusional consciousness-only) lineage, and the Tathāgatagarbha (eternal true mind) lineage, first outlined in 1941." From Debate Without Contention, p. 126, by Master Yin Shun.

[29] Reference: Lectures on the Mādhyamaka Sūtra: Chapter on Examining Karma (Guanying Ye Pin), by Master Yin Shun.

[30] Reference: History of Indian Buddhist Thought, pp. 252–253, by Master Yin Shun.

[31] "The school that takes the truly existent, permanent Tathāgatagarbha as its foundational tenet arose in South India; the school that takes the delusional, impermanent ālayavijñāna as its foundational tenet arose in the North: these two stand in direct opposition. When they spread to Central India (called the 'East' by Northerners), contact between the two led to compromise and synthesis. The Tathāgatagarbha was not originally explicitly referred to as 'mind', but later it also came to be called the 'Tathāgatagarbha mind'. …… These are Yogācāra practitioners of the Tathāgatagarbha lineage, who incorporated the doctrinal principles of the ālayavijñāna lineage to establish their own tradition: an idealism grounded in the eternal. …… In short, the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra and the Ghanavyūha Sūtra build on the foundation of the Tathāgatagarbha self, integrating Yogācāra teachings—idealism grounded in the ālayavijñāna—to enrich their content, forming what is known as 'idealism grounded in the eternal'." From History of Indian Buddhist Thought, pp. 294–308, by Master Yin Shun.

[32] "This verse makes clear that the definition of inherent existence is: self-standing, permanent, and independent. All our cognition is steeped in this view of inherent existence. We perceive existent things as self-standing; because these things appear within the framework of time and space, we take them to be permanent and independent. All dependently arisen phenomena do not escape the marks of existence, time, and space; the inverted view of inherent existence inevitably springs from clinging to these three points. This is why when the Buddha taught dependent origination, he uprooted inverted views and revealed the true Dharma, settling all questions at once." From Lectures on the Mādhyamaka Sūtra, p. 253, by Master Yin Shun.

[33] "Consciousness abides in form, clings to form, and experiences delight and craving; it is nourished, grows, and expands. It also abides in feeling, perception, and volitional formations, clings to these, experiences delight and craving; it is nourished, grows, and expands." Samyukta Āgama Sutra 39

[34] "Mind and matter not only share a mutually dependent relationship, but mind is the dominant factor. It is commonly said that Buddhism is idealism, and 'the three realms are mind-only' and 'all dharmas are consciousness-only' have become common catchphrases. That said, if we go by the actual doctrinal teachings of Buddhism, neither Mahāyāna nor Hīnayāna inherently espouse idealism or consciousness-only. For example, if we look at the view that all dharmas shift in tandem with the mind’s shifting, whether directly, indirectly, obviously, or subtly, this mind-centric framework is universally acknowledged across all Buddhist schools, both Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna." From Three Essentials of Learning Buddhism, pp. 47–48, by Master Yin Shun.