Professor Lin Chong-an: The Content Structure of the *Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra* and the *Prakaraṇāryavāca-śāstra*

The Content Structure of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra and the Prakaraṇāryavāca-śāstra

and Their Compilation

Lin Chong-an (2002)

Abstract

This paper analyzes the content structure of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra and the Prakaraṇāryavāca-śāstra. It shows that the original Mūla-bhūmi (Fundamental Section) was primarily based on the doctrines and practices found in the Āgamas. Later, the Bodhisattva Asaṅga expanded the "Bodhisattva-bhūmi," giving equal weight to both the Śrāvaka path and the Bodhisattva path. By the time he compiled the Prakaraṇāryavāca-śāstra, the Bodhisattva path had become the central focus. Drawing on internal inconsistencies within the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, the paper also reconstructs the process by which Asaṅga compiled both works.

Keywords: Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Prakaraṇāryavāca-śāstra, Bodhisattva Asaṅga

I. Introduction

The Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra and the Prakaraṇāryavāca-śāstra are generally regarded as essential texts of the Yogācāra school. This paper first briefly describes the Chinese and Tibetan translations of the two texts and their content structures, then turns to the internal inconsistencies within the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra to infer the process by which the Bodhisattva Asaṅga compiled both works.

II. The Chinese and Tibetan Transmissions of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra and the Prakaraṇāryavāca-śāstra

The Chinese transmission of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra is attributed to "the Bodhisattva Maitreya, translated by imperial decree by the Great Tripiṭaka Master Xuanzang of the Tang Dynasty." It runs to 100 fascicles, divided into five sections:

• Mūla-bhūmi (Fundamental Section) (fasc. 1–50), 50 fascicles.
• Viniścaya-saṃgrahaṇī (Section Gathering the Determinations) (fasc. 51–80), 30 fascicles.
• Vivaraṇa-saṃgrahaṇī (Section Gathering the Explanations) (fasc. 81–82), 2 fascicles.
• Paryāya-saṃgrahaṇī (Section Gathering the Synonymous Terms) (fasc. 83–84), 2 fascicles.
• Vastu-saṃgrahaṇī (Section Gathering the Topics) (fasc. 85–100), 16 fascicles. (Note 1)

The Tibetan transmission is attributed to "the Bodhisattva Asaṅga" and was translated collaboratively by the Indians Prajñāvarman, Jñānamitra, and Surendrabodhi along with the Tibetan translator Ye-shes-sde. It is also divided into five sections, but in a different order: Mūla-bhūmi, Viniścaya-saṃgrahaṇī, Vastu-saṃgrahaṇī, Paryāya-saṃgrahaṇī, and Vivaraṇa-saṃgrahaṇī. In the Catalogue of the Tibetan Tripitaka (Dergé edition), the catalog numbers and their corresponding contents are:

• No. 4035: The "Pañcavijñānakāya-saṃprayuktā bhūmiḥ" (Base of the Five Sense-Consciousnesses), "Mano-bhūmi" (Base of Mind), the three bases beginning with "Savitarkā-savicārā bhūmiḥ," "Samāhita-bhūmi" (Base of Meditative Absorption), "Asamāhita-bhūmi" (Base of Non-Meditative Absorption), the two bases of "Sacittaka" and "Acittaka" (With Mind and Without Mind), "Śruta-mayī bhūmi" (Base of Study), "Cintā-mayī bhūmi" (Base of Reflection), and "Bhāvanā-mayī bhūmi" (Base of Cultivation) from the Mūla-bhūmi (Chinese fasc. 1–20).

• No. 4036: The "Śrāvaka-bhūmi" (Base of Śrāvakas) and "Pratyeka-buddha-bhūmi" (Base of Solitary Buddhas) from the Mūla-bhūmi (Chinese fasc. 21–34).

• No. 4037: The "Bodhisattva-bhūmi" (Base of Bodhisattvas), "Sopadhiśeṣā bhūmiḥ" (Base with Residual Substratum), and "Nirupadhiśeṣā bhūmiḥ" (Base Without Residual Substratum) from the Mūla-bhūmi (Chinese fasc. 35–50).

• No. 4038: The Viniścaya-saṃgrahaṇī (Chinese fasc. 51–80).

• No. 4039: The Sūtra-vastu portion of the Vastu-saṃgrahaṇī (Chinese fasc. 85–98).

• No. 4040: The Vinaya-vastu and Mātṛkā-vastu portions of the Vastu-saṃgrahaṇī (Chinese fasc. 99–100).

• No. 4041: The Paryāya-saṃgrahaṇī (Chinese fasc. 83–84).

• No. 4042: The Vivaraṇa-saṃgrahaṇī (Chinese fasc. 81–82). (Note 2)

Because the Viniścaya-saṃgrahaṇī examines the seventeen bhūmis of the Mūla-bhūmi in sequence — from the "Pañcavijñānakāya-saṃprayuktā bhūmiḥ" through the "Nirupadhiśeṣā bhūmiḥ" (seventeen in all) — these two sections often circulated together in India. The remaining three sections could circulate independently, which explains why the order differs between the Chinese and Tibetan translations. This is easy enough to understand. Moreover, early Chinese translations of text fragments reveal that these five sections (or even portions within them) sometimes circulated separately in India. For example:

• Shiqidi lun (Treatise on the Seventeen Grounds), five fascicles, translated by Paramārtha, c. 550 CE; content corresponds to the "Pañcavijñānakāya-saṃprayuktā bhūmiḥ" and "Mano-bhūmi" of the Mūla-bhūmi. (Note 3)

• Pusa dishi jing (Sūtra of the Bodhisattva Grounds), ten fascicles, translated by Dharmakṣema, c. 426 CE; content corresponds to the "Bodhisattva-bhūmi" of the Mūla-bhūmi. (Note 4)

• Jueding zang lun (Treatise on the Storehouse of Determinations), three fascicles, translated by Paramārtha, c. 569 CE; content corresponds to the "Pañcavijñānakāya-saṃprayuktā bhūmiḥ" and "Mano-bhūmi" portions of the Viniścaya-saṃgrahaṇī. (Note 5)

The Chinese transmission of the Prakaraṇāryavāca-śāstra is attributed to "the Bodhisattva Asaṅga, translated by imperial decree by the Great Tripiṭaka Master Xuanzang of the Tang Dynasty." It totals 20 fascicles in eleven chapters and was not translated into Tibetan. (Note 6)

III. A Brief Account of the Content Structure of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra and the Prakaraṇāryavāca-śāstra

The content structure of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra can be seen from the explanation in the Yogācārabhūmi-vyākhyā:

1. The Mūla-bhūmi presents both concise and detailed treatments of the meanings of the seventeen bhūmis. 2. The Viniścaya-saṃgrahaṇī gathers and clarifies the profound, subtle, and essential points within the seventeen bhūmis. 3. The Vivaraṇa-saṃgrahaṇī gathers the rules for interpreting the various sūtras. 4. The Paryāya-saṃgrahaṇī gathers the distinctions in names and meanings of dharmas found in the sūtras. 5. The Vastu-saṃgrahaṇī gathers the essential topics and meanings of the Tripiṭaka. (Note 7)

Here we see that the Mūla-bhūmi and Viniścaya-saṃgrahaṇī serve to analyze and clarify the doctrines of the seventeen bhūmis. The Vivaraṇa-saṃgrahaṇī explains how to interpret the sūtras; the Paryāya-saṃgrahaṇī explains the names and meanings of dharmas as found in the sūtras; and the Vastu-saṃgrahaṇī explains the doctrines of the sūtras, Vinaya, and Abhidharma. The "various sūtras" referenced in these last three sections primarily refer to the Āgama sūtras. The examples of sūtra interpretation in the Vivaraṇa-saṃgrahaṇī are passages from the Saṃyukta-āgama related to the three trainings. The Paryāya-saṃgrahaṇī explains the "formulaic sūtra phrases" that frequently appear in the Āgamas, offering concise explanations of terms in the "white" (wholesome) and "black" (unwholesome) categories. (Note 8)

The Sūtra-vastu portion of the Vastu-saṃgrahaṇī explains passages from the Saṃyukta-āgama according to seventeen saṃyuktas: skandha, āyatana, pratītyasamutpāda, āhāra, satya, dhātu, vedanā, smṛtyupasthāna, samyakprahāṇa, ṛddhipāda, indriya, bala, bodhyaṅga, mārgaṅga, ānāpānasmṛti, the three trainings, and avetyaprasāda. (Note 9)

Now let us turn to the content structure of the seventeen bhūmis in the Mūla-bhūmi and Viniścaya-saṃgrahaṇī:

The "Pañcavijñānakāya-saṃprayuktā bhūmiḥ" and "Mano-bhūmi" of the Mūla-bhūmi examine the five sensory consciousnesses and the mental consciousness in terms of svabhāva (intrinsic nature), āśraya (basis), ālambana (object), sahāya (attendants), and kāritra (function). Apart from certain passages on the ālayavijñāna, these are all presented from the perspective of the Āgamas.

The three bhūmis of the Mūla-bhūmi — "Savitarkā-savicārā bhūmiḥ" (With Both Application and Investigation), "Avitarkā-vicāramātrā bhūmiḥ" (Investigation Only, Without Application), and "Avitarkā-'vicārā bhūmiḥ" (Without Application or Investigation) — are established through five gateways: dhātu (realms), lakṣaṇa (characteristics), yoniśomanaskāra (correct mental application), ayoniśomanaskāra (incorrect mental application), and saṃkleśa-prabhava (origination of defilements). Under incorrect mental application, sixteen heterodox views are described in detail. Under the origination of defilements, three major topics are elaborated: kleśa-saṃkleśa (defilement of afflictions), karma-saṃkleśa (defilement of action), and janma-saṃkleśa (defilement of birth).

In the "Samāhita-bhūmi" of the Mūla-bhūmi, five gateways are used to discuss the four major topics of dhyāna (meditative absorption), vimokṣa (liberation), samādhi (concentration), and samāpatti (attainment): general designation, establishment, differences in manaskāra (mental application), differences in lakṣaṇa (characteristics), and a brief summary of the essential points of the sūtras. Here, the "brief summary of essential sūtra points" provides detailed explanations of important Āgama passages on meditative concentration. The "Asamāhita-bhūmi" briefly discusses non-meditative states. The "Sacittaka-bhūmi" and "Acittaka-bhūmi" (With Mind and Without Mind) are explained through five gateways: establishment by bhūmi, mind being scattered or unscattered, arising or not arising, states, and paramārtha (ultimate truth). All of the above remains primarily within the traditional Āgama perspective.

In the "Śruta-mayī bhūmi" of the Mūla-bhūmi, the five vidyās (sciences) are set forth, with the greatest emphasis on adhyātma-vidyā (inner science) and hetu-vidyā (logic). In adhyātma-vidyā, the key focus is on "the knowable aspects of phenomena as taught in the Buddha's teaching," systematically presenting numerical categories of dharmas from one up to ten — all terminology and doctrines drawn from the Āgamas.

In the "Cintā-mayī bhūmi," there are three gateways: svabhāva-viśuddhi (purity of intrinsic nature), cintā-jñeya (contemplation of the knowable), and cintā-dharma (contemplation of dharmas). The principal theme here is the meaning of the "gāthās" within the contemplation of dharmas, drawing upon the arthāvatāra-gāthā (one long verse), the abhiprāya-gāthā (one long verse), and the prakṛti- and artha-gāthās (thirteen and twenty-seven verses respectively). These are all important gāthās (verses) from the Āgamas, and their essential meanings are contemplated one by one.

In the "Bhāvanā-mayī bhūmi," seven factors are discussed at length: (1) janma-saṃpad (completeness of birth), (2) saddharma-śruta-saṃpad (completeness of hearing the true Dharma), (3) nirvāṇa-parama (nirvāṇa as supreme), (4) vimukti-paripāka-prajñā-paripāka (maturation of the wisdom that matures liberation), (5) pratipakṣa-bhāvanā (cultivation of antidotes, including ten perceptions), (6) laukikasarvākāra-viśuddhi (complete purity of all aspects of the mundane), and (7) lokottarasarvākāra-viśuddhi (complete purity of all aspects of the supramundane). None of this goes beyond traditional Āgama doctrine.

In the "Śrāvaka-bhūmi" of the Mūla-bhūmi, the content is organized into four yoga-stages (yogāvasthā). The first yoga-stage has three sections: gotra-bhūmi (base of spiritual disposition), praveśa-bhūmi (base of entry), and naiṣkramaṇāśā-bhūmi (base of the aspiration for renunciation). Its key points are the twelve inferior prerequisites ((1) self-completeness, (2) other-completeness, (3) aspiration for wholesome dharmas, (4) proper renunciation, (5) observance of precepts, (6) restraint of the faculties, (7) knowing the proper measure in eating, (8) constant diligence in the yoga of wakefulness throughout the first and last watches of the night, (9) dwelling with clear awareness, (10) delight in seclusion, (11) purification of the hindrances, and (12) reliance on samādhi) and the fourteen provisions for the mundane and supramundane path of dispassion ((1) self-completeness, (2) other-completeness, (3) aspiration for wholesome dharmas, (4) observance of precepts, (5) restraint of the faculties, (6) knowing the proper measure in eating, (7) constant diligence in the yoga of wakefulness throughout the first and last watches of the night, (8) dwelling with clear awareness, (9) good spiritual friends, (10) hearing the true Dharma, (11) reflecting on the true Dharma, (12) freedom from obstacles, (13) cultivation of generosity, and (14) the dignity of a śramaṇa). Though there is considerable repetition, the content captures the essentials of the path of provisions (saṃbhāra-mārga) as taught in the Āgamas.

The second yoga-stage of the "Śrāvaka-bhūmi" covers seventeen topics, including categories of persons, objects of focus, instruction, and training. The emphasis falls on the objects of focus for yoga (divided into (1) pervasive objects, (2) objects for purifying conduct, (3) objects of skillful means, and (4) objects for purifying defilements) as well as the practices of yoga cultivation (divided into (1) perception-cultivation and (2) bodhyaṅga-cultivation). These represent the core objects of focus and methods of practice for yogins as found in the Āgamas.

The third yoga-stage of the "Śrāvaka-bhūmi" has four gateways: going to inquire, rejoicing and consoling, careful questioning, and establishing. The key focus here is on establishing "one-pointedness of mind, purification of hindrances, and cultivation of mental application," with detailed descriptions of the nine abidings of mind (navākārā cittasthiti), the sixfold distinctive objects of vipaśyanā, and instructions on the contemplation of impurity and the cultivation of loving-kindness for beginners.

The fourth yoga-stage of the "Śrāvaka-bhūmi" guides practitioners who have already attained mental application in cultivating the mundane path and the supramundane path. All of the above follows the doctrinal framework of the Āgamas, laying out the practice process by which persons of different capacities attain the fruit of arhatship.

The "Pratyeka-buddha-bhūmi" of the Mūla-bhūmi briefly describes the spiritual disposition, path, training, abode, and conduct of pratyekabuddhas.

The "Bodhisattva-bhūmi" of the Mūla-bhūmi is organized into four yoga-stages comprising twenty-eight chapters: (1) gotra (spiritual disposition), (2) bodhicittotpāda (arousing the thought of awakening), (3) svaparārtha (benefit of self and others), (4) tattvārtha (true meaning), (5) ṛddhi (supernatural power), (6) paripāka (maturation), (7) bodhi (awakening), (8) balagotra (faculty of powers), (9) dāna (generosity), (10) śīla (ethical conduct), (11) kṣānti (patience), (12) vīrya (diligence), (13) dhyāna (meditative concentration), (14) prajñā (wisdom), (15) saṃgraha-vastu (means of gathering disciples), (16) pūjā-saṃsevana-apramāṇa (offering, attending, and immeasurables), (17) bodhipakṣa (factors of awakening), (18) guṇa (qualities), (19) bodhisattva-lakṣaṇa (marks of a bodhisattva), (20) bhāga (divisions), (21) adhyāśaya (supreme intention), (22) sthāna (abodes), (23) janma (birth), (24) saṃgrahaṇa (embracing), (25) bhūmi (grounds), (26) caryā (conduct), (27) vyavasthāna (establishment), and (28) samyak-saṃbodhi-cittotpāda (arousing the thought of perfect, complete awakening). The twenty-eighth chapter summarizes the sequential practice of the preceding twenty-seven. The extensive content of this "Bodhisattva-bhūmi" was compiled on the basis of Mahāyāna sūtras beyond the Āgamas.

The "Sopadhiśeṣā bhūmiḥ" and "Nirupadhiśeṣā bhūmiḥ" of the Mūla-bhūmi only briefly describe the fruitional states of the arhat bhikṣu.

Taken together, these are the seventeen bhūmis: the first nine pertain to "the domain" (viṣaya), the middle six (Śruta-mayī, Cintā-mayī, Bhāvanā-mayī, Śrāvaka, Pratyeka-buddha, and Bodhisattva) pertain to "practice" (caryā), and the final two (Sopadhiśeṣā and Nirupadhiśeṣā) pertain to "fruit" (phala).

The Viniścaya-saṃgrahaṇī takes up the seventeen bhūmis in sequence, clarifying points of difficulty. It gives extensive doctrinal analysis to the "Pañcavijñānakāya-saṃprayuktā bhūmiḥ and Mano-bhūmi," the "three bhūmis beginning with Savitarkā-savicārā," the "Śrāvaka-bhūmi," and the "Bodhisattva-bhūmi." Notably, in the section on the "Pañcavijñānakāya-saṃprayuktā bhūmiḥ and Mano-bhūmi," the existence of the ālayavijñāna is specifically argued for. When examining the "Bodhisattva-bhūmi," beginning from "paramārtha-satya" (ultimate truth), extensive quotations are drawn from the Saṃdhinirmocana-sūtra (on ultimate truth, yoga, the bhūmi-pāramitā, and the tathāgata's accomplishment of all aims — the definitive teachings).

The Vivaraṇa-saṃgrahaṇī sets out the rules for interpreting the sūtras and cites examples from the Āgamas ("O bhikṣus, you should dwell in the precepts; the precepts are the foundation of all wholesome qualities. Study and uphold them well. Supramundane wisdom is the foremost; liberation is firm; mindfulness is paramount").

The Paryāya-saṃgrahaṇī directly explains formulaic sūtra phrases from the Āgamas, such as "This life is exhausted, the holy life is established, what was to be done has been done, and there will be no further becoming."

The Sūtra-vastu of the Vastu-saṃgrahaṇī explains in sequence the essential meanings of passages in the Skandha, Āyatana, Pratītyasamutpāda, and Mārga sections of the Saṃyukta-āgama.

The Vinaya-vastu and Mātṛkā-vastu of the Vastu-saṃgrahaṇī respectively explain the Prātimokṣa-sūtra (Individual Liberation Precepts) and the summary of meanings regarding defilement and purification.

As for the content structure of the Prakaraṇāryavāca-śāstra, it is divided into eleven chapters, in order: the Vastu-saṃgraha chapter, the Vastu-viśuddhi-padārtha chapter, the Saṃprajñanādhikāra chapter, the Anityatādhikāra chapter, the Duḥkhādhikāra chapter, the Śūnyatādhikāra chapter, the Aprakṛtitādhikāra chapter, the Abhisamayādhikāra chapter, the Yogādhikāra chapter, the Acintyādhikāra chapter, and the Paramaviniścaya-saṃgraha chapter.

In the Vastu-saṃgraha chapter, nine topics are gathered: all dharmas, dhātus, defilements, truths, bases, factors of awakening, persons, fruits, and qualities. Among these, "all dharmas" refers to the five dharmas: mind (citta), mental factors (caitta), form (rūpa), non-associated formations (cittaviprayukta-saṃskāra), and the unconditioned (asaṃskṛta).

In the Vastu-viśuddhi-padārtha chapter, the four pure qualities and the two truths are discussed first, followed by separate treatments of study, going for refuge, training, and bodhi. It concludes with discussions of various noble practices, the supreme vehicle, great awakening, qualities, heterodox views, the method of debate, and explanation.

4. Minor Doctrinal Discrepancies Among the Five Sections of the Yogācārabhūmi Treatise

To settle the question of whether the Yogācārabhūmi Treatise was authored by Maitreya Bodhisattva or compiled by Asaṅga Bodhisattva, a useful first step is to check whether the doctrinal meaning across its five sections is internally consistent. The following examples illustrate this:

(1) Discrepancies Between the Basic Section and the Collection of Variant Terms Section

In the Bodhisattva Ground (vol. 38) of the Basic Section, the epithets Sugata (the Well-Gone One) and Anuttara Puruṣa Damya Sārathin (the Unsurpassed Charioteer of Men) are explained as follows:

He who has ascended to the supreme state and will never fall back is thus called the Well-Gone One. He is the only true man in the entire world, who perfectly knows the supreme skillful means to tame the mind; thus he is called the Unsurpassed Charioteer of Men. (Note 10)

By contrast, the Collection of Variant Terms Section (vol. 83) offers a different explanation:

It’s said he is the Well-Gone One because, over the long night of saṃsāra, he cultivates every kind of merit for both his own welfare and the welfare of others. He is the Unsurpassed Charioteer of Men because his wisdom is peerless, and no one surpasses him. (Note 11)

These two sections differ slightly in how they describe the Tathāgata’s ten epithets, his meritorious qualities, and his wisdom. But these differences do not reflect conflicting philosophical positions.

(2) Discrepancies Between the Basic Section and the Collection of Topics Section

The Śrāvaka Ground (vol. 26) of the Basic Section states:

If one contemplates a corpse that is discolored and livid, or festering and rotting, or decaying and decomposing, or bloated, or being eaten by scavengers, this purifies the mind of attachment to visible forms. If one contemplates a corpse turned red, this purifies the mind of attachment to the shapes of forms. If one contemplates bones, bone chains, or piles of bones, this purifies the mind of attachment to pleasant tactile sensations. If one contemplates a corpse being scattered and dismembered, this purifies the mind of attachment to being served and attended to. (Note 12)

By contrast, the Collection of Topics Section (vol. 98) lists the following antidotes to the five attachments:

Here, the contemplation of lividity comes first, and the contemplation of bloating comes last [in the sequence], counteracting attachment to beautiful forms. Contemplation of being eaten by scavengers, contemplation of a corpse turning red, and contemplation of a corpse being scattered counteract attachment to physical appearance. Contemplation of bone chains and piles of bones counteract attachment to subtle tactile sensations. Contemplating that a corpse has no consciousness, and viewing it as an empty, insentient body counteract attachment to being attended to and served. (Note 13)

The two sections match contemplative objects to the attachments they antidote differently, showing they draw from distinct source materials.

(3) Discrepancies Between the Collection of Discriminative Analysis Section and the Collection of Topics Section

The Śrāvaka Ground (vol. 70) of the Collection of Discriminative Analysis Section states:

What is contemplation of the body abiding in the dharma of arising? It means observing that this body arises from past lifetimes and from present food and drink. What is contemplation of the body abiding in the dharma of cessation? It means observing that this body is subject to death and cessation in future lifetimes. What is contemplation of the body abiding in the dharma of both arising and cessation? It means observing that this body, in the present lifetime, grows and persists due to food and drink, and will inevitably break apart. (Note 14)

By contrast, the Collection of Topics Section (vol. 97) states:

Regarding the future, one should know to abide in contemplation following the dharma of arising. Regarding the past, one should know to abide in contemplation following the dharma of cessation. Regarding the present, since it is a dharma that ceases immediately after arising, one should know to abide in contemplation following the dharma of both arising and cessation. (Note 15)

The two sections pair the three dharmas of arising, cessation, and both arising and cessation differently.

(4) Discrepancies Between the Collection of Discriminative Analysis Section and the Collection of Variant Terms Section

The Śrāvaka Ground (vol. 70) of the Collection of Discriminative Analysis Section states:

By what two causes is a stūpa erected? First, because it is built on the basis of awakened realization; second, because it is a trustworthy object of refuge. By what two causes is it a trustworthy object of refuge? First, because one takes refuge in wisdom rather than in ordinary consciousness; second, because the Teacher is the Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Awakened One. By what two causes is the Teacher the Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Awakened One? First, because he has eliminated all doubts; second, because no erroneous or heretical conduct can be found in him. (Note 16)

By contrast, the Collection of Variant Terms Section (vol. 83) offers this explanation:

A stūpa stands because it cannot be shaken or destroyed by any non-Buddhist ascetics, Māra, or other worldly beings. It’s said to be a trustworthy object of refuge because it embodies the fourfold reliance, free of any flaw or corruption. The Teacher is the Tathāgata, Arhat, Perfectly Awakened One because the teachings he gives are perfectly pure and untainted. (Note 17)

Though these two explanations touch on related themes, they clearly stem from different source materials.

(5) Discrepancies Between the Basic Section and the Collection of Exegetical Explanation Section

In the twelvefold division of the Buddhist teachings, the category Nidāna (sometimes rendered as “Causes and Conditions” or “Dependent Origination”) is defined in the Basic Section (vol. 25) as follows:

What is Nidāna? It refers to scriptures that record the name and lineage of the person who requested the teaching, which was expounded in response to that request, as well as all Prātimokṣa-related sūtras connected to specific causes and conditions for the practice of individual liberation. These are called Nidāna. (Note 18)

The Collection of Exegetical Explanation Section (vol. 81) explains it as follows:

Nidāna refers to teachings given in response to a request. As a sūtra states: “At one time, the World-Honored One, using the example of a black deer, expounded the essential Dharma to the bhikṣus.” It also includes all Vinaya-related discourses that follow the path of individual liberation arising from specific causes and conditions. The text further notes: “The World-Honored One, relying on such and such causes and conditions, such and such contexts, expounded such and such words.” (Note 19)

While the Basic Section defines Nidāna by reference to “teachings given in response to a request” and “Vinaya discourses,” the Collection of Exegetical Explanation Section adds the category of “reliance on causes and conditions” to explain the content of Nidāna sūtras. Though the difference is minor, the two sections draw from distinct source materials.

(6) Internal Doctrinal Discrepancies Within the Śrāvaka Ground of the Basic Section

Beyond discrepancies between different sections, there are also divergent explanations within the same section. For instance, the First Yoga Ground (vol. 28) of the Śrāvaka Ground states:

If one takes the marks of one’s own body—hair, body hair, nails, teeth, and so on—as the object of meditation, this is called abiding in contemplation of the body with regard to the internal. If one takes the marks of others’ bodies—such as hair, body hair, nails, and teeth—as the object, this is called abiding in contemplation of the body with regard to the external. If one takes the marks of one’s own external body as it changes or remains unchanged—such as lividity—and the same marks of others’ external bodies, while holding the identical, equal nature of all phenomena as the object, this is called abiding in contemplation of the body with regard to both internal and external. Likewise, if one takes the feelings, mind, and dharmas that arise from the three types of form mentioned above as the object of meditation, as appropriate, this is understood as abiding in contemplation of feelings, mind, and dharmas respectively. (Note 20)

By contrast, the Third Yoga Ground (vol. 32) of the Śrāvaka Ground states:

First, you should clearly take up the marks of the thirty-six parts of your internal body, from hair and body hair down to urine……then settle your mind inwardly. This is called practicing contemplation of the body with regard to the internal. Next, you should take up the marks of all impure external objects……then settle your mind inwardly. This is called practicing contemplation of the body with regard to the external. Afterward, you should again take up the marks of all impure objects in your own body’s internal and external aspects, making your mind clear and distinct, and also take up the marks of the impure internal and external aspects of others’ bodies……then settle your mind inwardly. This is called practicing contemplation of the body with regard to both internal and external. You should also, through the power of listening and reflection, discriminately take up the marks of the four formless aggregates, and generate firm understanding of the three categories: first, the samādhi category; second, the category of non-distraction; third, the vipaśyanā category. (By generating this firm understanding of the three categories with the four formless aggregates as the object) this is successively called practicing contemplation of feelings, mind, and dharmas with regard to the internal……practicing contemplation of feelings, mind, and dharmas with regard to the external……practicing contemplation of feelings, mind, and dharmas with regard to both internal and external. (Note 21)

Across these two yoga grounds, the methods for practicing the four foundations of mindfulness divided into the three groups of internal, external, and both internal and external differ significantly; no matching explanation for these three groups appears in either, showing that even within a single section, distinct source materials are at work.

All these examples show that the Yogācārabhūmi Treatise was compiled from a wide array of distinct source materials. The discrepancies between sections do not reflect conflicting philosophical positions of different doctrinal schools, but only small differences in explanation. By paying attention to these minor doctrinal variations, we can begin to infer how both the Yogācārabhūmi Treatise and Asaṅga’s Exposition of the Sublime Teaching (Xian Yang Sheng Jiao Lun) were compiled.

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5. The Compilation of the Yogācārabhūmi Treatise and Asaṅga’s Exposition of the Sublime Teaching

In the long span between the Buddha’s passing (around 486 BCE) and the birth of Asaṅga Bodhisattva (310–390 CE), the Buddha’s teachings continued to be passed down through generations in India. Alongside the early Āgama sūtras and śāstras, Mahāyāna sūtras and śāstras also circulated widely. In the fourth century CE, Asaṅga was the great synthesizer of his era’s Buddhist teachings; one of his most important contributions was circulating the Yogācārabhūmi Treatise across India, giving his contemporary Buddhists a foundational framework for both doctrine and practice, and spurring the revival of Buddhism. Based on the differing doctrinal emphases of the five Yogācārabhūmi sections discussed above, we can infer the following compilation process for the treatise:

1. Over the generations of Buddhist transmission, practitioners who emphasized practice compiled the core points of their training into texts. As each group had its own areas of focus, a number of distinct, important source materials emerged. Asaṅga compiled, supplemented, and organized these materials to create the Basic Section (50 volumes), which is divided into seventeen grounds. As the Yogācārabhūmi Treatise (vol. 1) states at the outset:
   1. The Ground of the Five Sense Consciousnesses
   2. The Mental Ground
   3. The Ground with Investigation and Analysis
   4. The Ground without Investigation but with Analysis
   5. The Ground without Investigation or Analysis
   6. The Ground of Meditative Absorption
   7. The Ground of Non-Meditative Absorption
   8. The Ground of the Mind
   9. The Ground of No-Mind
   10. The Ground of Knowledge Derived from Hearing
   11. The Ground of Knowledge Derived from Reflection
   12. The Ground of Knowledge Derived from Meditative Cultivation
   13. The Śrāvaka Ground
   14. The Pratyekabuddha Ground
   15. The Bodhisattva Ground
   16. The Ground with Remaining Attachment
   17. The Ground without Remaining Attachment In brief, these seventeen are called the grounds of the yoga practitioner. (Note 22)

This passage makes clear that the seventeen grounds form the earliest core of the Yogācārabhūmi Treatise, which Asaṅga compiled, supplemented, and organized into the treatise’s Basic Section. The small doctrinal discrepancies within the text reveal clear traces of editorial work; since each distinct source material had valuable elements, most or all of it was preserved in the final version.

The two most central sections of the compilation are the Śrāvaka Ground, which gathers materials related to the doctrinal meanings of the Āgama sūtras, and the Bodhisattva Ground, which supplements materials related to Mahāyāna doctrinal meanings. When compiling the Śrāvaka Ground, Asaṅga divided the materials into four yoga grounds, each containing multiple topics. Given the large volume of material, minor inconsistencies between sections were inevitable, but the compilation also preserved many early yoga practitioners’ practical instructions and teachings.

The Bodhisattva Ground is similarly divided into four yoga grounds, gathering the core meanings of Mahāyāna sūtras, particularly the exposition of bodhisattva precepts. After the Bodhisattva Ground come the Ground with Remaining Attachment and Ground without Remaining Attachment, which only briefly describe the fruition attainments of arhat bhikṣus. These fruition realizations follow directly from the Śrāvaka Ground, so it’s clear the Bodhisattva Ground was expanded and compiled at a later stage.

The two grounds preceding the Śrāvaka Ground—the Ground of the Five Sense Consciousnesses and the Mental Ground—address fundamental topics related to the six internal sense bases, forming a self-contained unit that reflects the yoga practitioners’ understanding of “objects of cognition.” The three grounds including the Ground with Investigation and Analysis lay out in detail the meanings of defilement and related topics, also forming a self-contained unit. The Ground of Meditative Absorption, Ground of Non-Meditative Absorption, and the two grounds of the mind and no-mind address topics related to meditative absorption, forming yet another self-contained unit. The Ground of Knowledge Derived from Hearing, Ground of Knowledge Derived from Reflection, and Ground of Knowledge Derived from Meditative Cultivation form a separate unit; the five sciences are included in the Ground of Knowledge Derived from Hearing. Within this, the topic of dialectics (hetuvidyā) discusses in detail the nature of debate, the setting for debate, the basis of debate, the adornments of debate, defeat in debate, and escape from debate. Asaṅga also included this material in his Exposition of the Sublime Teaching (vol. 11).

The three grounds including the Ground with Investigation and Analysis also contain a detailed exposition of sixteen types of heterodox views, which Asaṅga also included in his Exposition of the Sublime Teaching (vols. 9 and 10).

The internal science (adhyātma-vidyā) in the Ground of Knowledge Derived from Hearing gives a brief explanation of the Buddhist categories ranging from one dharma to ten dharmas. The Ground of Knowledge Derived from Reflection cites verses and explains their intended meanings. The Ground of Knowledge Derived from Meditative Cultivation explores the cultivation of antidotes, all types of worldly purification, and all types of supramundane purification. All these constitute the listening, reflection, and meditative wisdom that yoga practitioners should cultivate, and hold inherent value; thus Asaṅga compiled them into a single unit.

Apart from the Bodhisattva Ground and some portions of the doctrine of the storehouse consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna), the doctrinal content of the seventeen grounds in the Basic Section is largely drawn from the Āgama sūtras. Much of the material in the seventeen grounds was edited by Asaṅga, while some topics were originally authored by him; strictly distinguishing between the two is inherently difficult.

2. Asaṅga also provided discriminative analysis and supplementation for each of the seventeen grounds in the Basic Section, compiling the thirty-volume Collection of Discriminative Analysis Section. This section sets out many of his own doctrinal positions; for example, in the Ground of the Five Sense Consciousnesses and the Mental Ground, he establishes the existence of the storehouse consciousness (ālaya-vijñāna) through eight aspects. This topic was also included in his Exposition of the Sublime Teaching. When analyzing the Bodhisattva Ground, Asaṅga drew extensively on the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra to supplement the content of the bodhisattva path, and also explained the sixteen gateways of the Ratnakūṭa Sūtra.

3. How should the Āgama sūtras be interpreted? What are the rules for exegetical explanation? Drawing on traditional Indian Buddhist exegetical methods, Asaṅga compiled the two-volume Collection of Exegetical Explanation Section, which uses five categories to provide consistent explanations for all Buddhist sūtras, taking the Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra as an example. Asaṅga also included this treatise in volumes 12 and 13 of his Exposition of the Sublime Teaching.

4. After the Buddha’s parinirvāṇa, his disciples created “variant designations” to categorize and explain the many technical terms found in the Āgama sūtras. These concise treatises were passed down from teacher to student over generations, eventually coming into Asaṅga’s possession, and were incorporated into the Yogācārabhūmi Treatise as the two-volume Collection of Variant Terms Section.

5. Similarly, Buddhist disciples who wanted to master the doctrinal principles of the Saṃyukta Āgama worked through the Skandha, Āyatana, Pratyaya, and Mārga sections in sequence, drawing out the essential meaning of each. This gave rise to the Sūtra-mātṛkā — the "matrix of the sūtras." The treatise eventually reached Asaṅga, who folded it into the Sūtravyākhyāna section of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra as the Sūtra material. Alongside it was the Vinaya-vyākhyāna-mātṛkā — the "matrix of the Vinaya" — which distilled the essential teachings of the Pratimokṣa-sūtra and was placed in the same section as the Vinaya material. To complete the collection, Asaṅga added a short treatise, the Dharma-lakṣaṇa-mātṛkā, briefly gathering the doctrines of saṃsāra and nirvāṇa, of defilement and purification. Thus the Sūtravyākhyāna section of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra — sixteen fascicles in all — came together. Who first drew out the essential meanings of these sūtras and vinayas? One tradition credits the Venerable Mahākāśyapa.

In both the Chinese and Tibetan translations of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, the Vyākhyāyukti and Sūtravyākhyāna appear in reversed order; this simply suggests that in early India the two circulated independently.

In short, Asaṅga first compiled the Bhūmivastu section around the practice of yogins, then subjected its contents to systematic analysis in the Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī, and finally gathered together the Vyākhyāyukti, Paryāyasaṃgraha, and Sūtravyākhyāna to produce the vast Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra — a work that places the Śrāvaka path and the Bodhisattva path on equal footing.

The Xiǎnyáng Shèngjiào Lùn, by contrast, was organized around the Bodhisattva path. From the Bhūmivastu section of the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Asaṅga drew out the essential teachings and arranged them into the "Saṃgraha-vastu chapter" (fascicles 1–4) and the "Saṃgraha-śuddhārtha chapter" (fascicles 5–8). For instance, the śīla-saṃvara (moral restraint) from the first yoga-ground of the Śrāvaka-bhūmi was woven into the "Discriminative Analysis of the Discipline of Superior Ethical Learning" in fascicle 7; the laukika-mārga (worldly path) from the fourth yoga-ground was placed alongside it in the same fascicle; and the Bodhisattva-guṇa chapter of the Bodhisattva-bhūmi entered fascicle 8. He went on to organize the sixteen heterodox doctrines from the Bhūmivastu into fascicles 9–10 of the "Saṃgraha-śuddhārtha chapter," compile the hetu-vidyā (logic and epistemology) from the Bhūmivastu into fascicle 11, and fold the Vyākhyāyukti into fascicles 12–13 of the same chapter. After this came a series of short treatises — the Kauśalya-siddhi, Anitya-siddhi, Duḥkha-siddhi, Śūnyatā-siddhi, Ansvabhāva-siddhi, Abhisamaya-siddhi, Yoga-siddhi, and Acintya-siddhi chapters — laid down in order across fascicles 14 through the first part of fascicle 17. Last of all, the essential teachings of the Viniścayasaṃgrahaṇī were compiled as the "Saṃgraha-viniścaya chapter," running from the second part of fascicle 17 through fascicle 20. With this, the work's purpose of "manifesting the sacred teaching" was at last fulfilled.

VI. Conclusion

The preceding discussion makes clear that Asaṅga's work on the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra moved on two levels. On one level he edited and preserved important earlier materials centered on the doctrinal principles and practices of the Āgamas; on another he subjected them to fresh analysis and supplementation — most notably through the long treatment given to the Bodhisattva-bhūmi. The Bhūmivastu section, originally centered on the Śrāvaka path, was thereby transformed into a work that gives equal weight to the Bodhisattva path. By the time he compiled the Xiǎnyáng Shèngjiào Lùn, the Bodhisattva path had become the organizing principle.

Where did Asaṅga's materials come from? Most likely from a great yogin of that time known as Bodhisattva Maitreya — which is why the Chinese translation says the Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra was "spoken by Bodhisattva Maitreya." It was Maitreya who guided Asaṅga onto the Bodhisattva path, opening the way for a great body of Mahāyāna commentarial literature to reach later generations. The Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra itself was compiled precisely at the moment of Asaṅga's own turn toward the Mahāyāna. In its content it preserves much that is valuable in the doctrinal principles and practical disciplines of the Āgama tradition; the Xiǎnyáng Shèngjiào Lùn, in turn, reveals the core practices and teachings a Bodhisattva practitioner should cultivate in relation to the sacred teaching. Together, the two treatises stand as landmark works of their age in India.

Footnotes:

1、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, spoken by Bodhisattva Maitreya, translated by Xuanzang, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, No. 1579.

2、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, composed by Bodhisattva Asaṅga, [Tibetan Derge edition], No. 4035-4042.

3、Daśa-bhūmika-śāstra (Treatise on the Seventeen Stages), translated by Paramārtha, now lost.

4、Bodhisattva-bhūmi-dhāraṇa-sūtra, translated by Dharmarakṣa, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, No. 1581.

5、*Niṣcaya-saṃgraha* (Treatise Resolving the Treasury), translated by Paramārtha, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, No. 1584.

6、*Xiǎnyáng Shèngjiào Lùn* (Treatise Manifesting the Sacred Teaching), composed by Bodhisattva Asaṅga, translated by Xuanzang, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, No. 1603.

7、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra-bhāṣya, composed by Jinaputra and others, translated by Xuanzang, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, 885a, No. 1580.

8、"The Buddhist Knowledge System Constructed in the Āgama Sūtras," Lin Chong'an, in the Conference Proceedings of the "Buddhist Knowledge Management Symposium," published by the Gayāsīṃha Foundation, 2002.

9、*Saṃyuktāgama-śāstra-saṃdhāya* (Compiled Collection of the Saṃyukta Āgama and Its Commentarial Treatises), edited by Master Yinshun, Zhengwen Publishing House, 1983.

10、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, 499b.

11、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, 765a.

12、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, 429a.

13、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, 865b.

14、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, 686b.

15、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, 859b.

16、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, 687c.

17、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, 761c.

18、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, 418c.

19、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, 753a.

20、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, 441b.

21、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, 461c.

22、Yogācārabhūmi-śāstra, Taishō Tripiṭaka Vol. 30, 279a.

(Published in Fǎguāng Lùntán [Dharma Light Forum], 2002)