One of the Six Root Afflictions: The Affliction of Views

(1) View of the Body (Belief in a Self)

The first of the wrong views is called the view of the body, which essentially refers to self-grasping and the grasping at "mine." Because one develops self-grasping toward one's own body, it is referred to as the view of the body.

The "body" here does not merely refer to the physical form, but encompasses the five aggregates (the aggregate of form, the aggregate of feeling, the aggregate of perception, the aggregate of mental formations, and the aggregate of consciousness).

Having developed self-grasping toward the five aggregates, one then grasps at external things as "mine." This is what the Middle Way (Madhyamaka) refers to as the self-grasping of persons (as opposed to the self-grasping of phenomena). The view of the body is the root of all afflictions.

Although Buddhism sometimes states that ignorance is the root of samsara, at other times it says self-grasping is the root, and occasionally identifies attachment as the root, they are essentially referring to the same thing.

The most critical factor is ignorance; self-grasping and ignorance are the primary causes, while attachment is a secondary cause.

As long as ignorance exists, self-grasping will arise; and where there is self-grasping, attachment will follow. These three factors constitute the root of cyclic existence (samsara).

At the very beginning of samsara, the first thing to arise was not matter, but ignorance, followed by self-grasping. Because of self-grasping, the grasping at "mine" emerged. Once ignorance and the grasping at "mine" have arisen, all other afflictions naturally follow. Only by eradicating self-grasping and ignorance can one attain liberation.

By eliminating ignorance, one realizes the true nature of the universe and life. Consequently, various illusions and misconceptions will cease, and the afflictions born of these misconceptions will lose their foundation. Liberation will then naturally manifest.

This is the method and path to liberation pointed out by the Buddha. We must do our utmost to pursue wisdom, for wisdom alone can resolve all problems.

The first six chapters of the Bodhisattvacaryāvatāra (A Guide to the Bodhisattva's Way of Life), which discuss the five perfections—such as generosity and ethical discipline—are all designed to serve the perfection of wisdom.

It is wisdom that can eradicate the affliction of ignorance.

Ignorance and wisdom are mutually exclusive opposites. To overturn ignorance, nothing but wisdom can play the most decisive role. Other factors—such as compassion, renunciation, and faith in karma and samsara—cannot serve this ultimate purpose, because they do not inherently contradict ignorance and self-grasping. One can still believe in karma and samsara, and even practice compassion, while harboring ignorance and self-grasping. However, the generation of the selfless wisdom that realizes emptiness requires a foundation of bodhicitta and renunciation. Therefore, practicing the preliminary practices (ngondro) is extremely important.

(2) View of Extremes

The view of extremes is derived from the foundation of the view of the body.

Believing in an inherently existent "self," one clings to the extremes of existence or non-existence, or eternalism or nihilism. This means believing that after death, the "I" will either endure eternally, unchanged, or be completely annihilated. These constitute the two extreme views. From a Buddhist perspective, the materialist viewpoint falls under nihilism.

Materialism is divided into three types: dialectical materialism, mechanical materialism, and vulgar materialism. Even before Shakyamuni Buddha turned the wheel of Dharma, ancient forms of vulgar materialism existed. Vulgar materialism adheres to the nihilistic view. It refuses to acknowledge anything beyond what can be perceived by the five senses, rejecting past and future lives, the law of karma, and other relatively hidden phenomena. This perspective is known as nihilism.

Conversely, the views of most ancient Indian religions were eternalistic. They accepted a permanent, indestructible self and believed in an eternal deity who governed the world and was immortal. This is called eternalism. As long as one believed in the deity, abstained from evil, and cultivated good, one would surely receive positive karmic rewards and potentially be reborn in the higher realms of humans or gods to enjoy happiness. Eternalism and nihilism combined are referred to as the view of extremes.

Between the two, nihilism is far more terrifying than eternalism. As the Four Hundred Stanzas on the Middle Way states: "By not harming [others], one is born as a human or god; by realizing emptiness, one attains nirvana." By not harming other living beings, one can be reborn in the fortunate realms of humans and gods; by realizing emptiness, one can escape samsara and attain nirvana.

Nihilism is terrifying because it assumes that after death, there is absolutely nothing, and the law of karma ceases to exist. Therefore, as long as one is not discovered, one dares to commit any atrocity—killing, stealing, engaging in sexual misconduct, or lying. Ethics and morality are viewed merely as social conventions; if one does not wish to follow them, one can act completely irresponsibly and do whatever one pleases, believing that karmic retribution and the afterlife do not exist. Consequently, all ethics, morality, and concepts of karma are destroyed, and one will inevitably face merciless retribution in the next life.

(3) Perverse Views

Simply not knowing whether samsara and karma exist is not considered a perverse view. Only the firm belief that the law of karma and the cycle of rebirth absolutely cannot exist qualifies as a perverse view.

Not all wrong views reach the level of being "perverse." Only a specific portion of them are perverse views. Why are they termed "perverse"? Because they slander the natural laws of the universe and serve as the source of all evil. This perspective is incredibly frightening. Anyone harboring it will become an evil, greedy, and incredibly ruthless person, capable of committing any atrocity—killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, or lying—without any restraint. Hence, it is called a perverse view.

The fourth and fifth wrong views discussed below are both known as "grasping views." This is because these viewpoints contain an element of rigid grasping—an unwillingness to let go.

For instance, one refuses to abandon certain views and precepts, convinced that these views and observances are exceptionally correct. Hence, they are called grasping views. Grasping views are further divided into two types: grasping views as supreme and grasping at rules and observances.

(4) Grasping Views as Supreme

The first word "view" in "grasping views as supreme" represents all erroneous viewpoints.

This affliction means that not only does one hold onto eternalistic or nihilistic views, but one also believes these perspectives to be the best and most correct. Stubbornly clinging to them, refusing to let go or abandon them—such an erroneous perspective is known as grasping views as supreme.

For example, some elderly people not only refuse to study Buddhism but also firmly believe that samsara and karma absolutely do not exist. They are convinced that their own worldview and philosophy of life are the only correct perspectives. This is what is meant by grasping views as supreme.

Because one's views play a decisive, guiding role in one's life and behavior, persistently holding onto erroneous views will inevitably lead to wrong outcomes. Therefore, grasping views as supreme is classified as a root affliction.

(5) Grasping at Rules and Observances

Grasping at rules and observances is the erroneous belief that adhering to various ascetic precepts and practices advocated by non-Buddhist traditions—particularly those involving the abuse of the body—is the actual path to liberation.

"Rules and observances" refer to precepts and prohibitions. Buddhism has precepts that prohibit killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, and lying, while non-Buddhist traditions also have their own diverse sets of rules and prohibitions.

For example, Buddhism considers killing to be the most severe of all misdeeds and strictly prohibits it under any circumstances. However, some ancient religions believed that sacrificing cattle, horses, sheep, or even women and children to deities could lead to liberation. Other Indian non-Buddhist sects believed that piercing the body with a trident could bring liberation, or that liberation could be achieved through extreme asceticism, such as refusing to wear clothes or eat, thereby torturing the physical body.

However, without realizing emptiness and resolving inner afflictions, merely torturing one's physical body cannot lead to liberation.

When this current physical body is destroyed, another body will simply manifest. Slaughtering other living beings not only fails to act as a cause for liberation but will instead cause one to fall into the lower realms. All these erroneous views from non-Buddhist traditions are known as grasping at rules and observances.

The five views outlined above are collectively referred to as wrong views. They all belong to the category of afflictive views, which is one of the six root afflictions (attachment, anger, ignorance, pride, doubt, and views).

If the affliction of wrong views is further broken down into these five, they add up to the ten root afflictions (attachment, anger, ignorance, pride, doubt, view of the body, view of extremes, perverse views, grasping views as supreme, and grasping at rules and observances).

How do we counteract these ten root afflictions?

The general antidote is the realization of emptiness. Once emptiness is realized, all afflictions can be resolved and overturned.

As for specific antidotes, one can use concepts like impermanence and suffering to control attachment, and compassion to control anger and hatred. By studying the Abhidharma and analyzing the five aggregates, the twelve sources, and the eighteen constituents, one realizes that the "self" is not a single, solid entity. Rather, it is a composite of the five aggregates, twelve sources, and eighteen constituents—a phenomenon merely imputed by conceptual mind. It is like assembling various parts and labeling the finished object a "car." The parts exist relatively objectively, but the "car" itself is merely an imputation. Similarly, the "I" actually does not inherently exist.

Through listening, contemplating, and meditating, one can cultivate wisdom and ultimately overturn ignorance.

We must understand that the ultimate purpose of studying and practicing Buddhism is to eradicate afflictions. Whether our practice is successful depends entirely on our ability to counteract these afflictions.

If one has studied Buddhism for many years, engaging in both intellectual study and practice, but because one's practice is inadequate, one's attachment, anger, ignorance, pride, and doubt have not diminished in the slightest; and when encountering problems, one reacts exactly like non-Buddhists or exactly as one did before entering the Buddhist path—then our Buddhist study is not only unsuccessful, it can actually be considered a failure.

Although studying, contemplating, meditating, and practicing virtue do have some merit, and our perspectives and lifestyles may show some improvement, these are not the core issues, and their ultimate significance is limited. Therefore, we must turn inward and honestly reflect on the actual results of our practice.

Some people continually study and listen to the teachings, but they never actually meditate (meaning they fail to replace their habitual thought patterns with those of the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas). They merely treat Buddhism as a culture or philosophy to be researched. In this, they are no different from university professors. Many professors study Buddhism academically, yet most do not actually believe in it, let alone possess the aspiration for practice and liberation. When they encounter problems in life, they do not apply Buddhist wisdom as an antidote. Merely theorizing on paper cannot solve fundamental problems.