Chapter 7: Mahayana Bodhisattva Practice

Section 2: The Great Bodhisattva Practice

Mahayana Is the Buddha-Dharma

Based on when the relevant scriptures and methods emerged, the Mahayana bodhisattva path likely began to take shape three or four centuries after the Buddha's passing. What's more, certain Mahayana ideas and teachings don't appear in the texts compiled at the traditional First and Second Councils. It is, in a sense, a later development — and for this reason, the challenge "Mahayana is not the Buddha's teaching" has persisted from the early days of the Mahayana right down to the present. So was the Mahayana ideal of attaining buddhahood actually taught during the Buddha's lifetime? The historical evidence leans strongly toward no. At the very least, we can say with confidence that Mahayana was not the mainstream teaching of the Buddha's era.

But the real concern behind the claim "Mahayana is not the Buddha's teaching" — whether in ancient or modern times — is probably not about whether the Buddha literally said it. The real concern is the denial that Mahayana constitutes the Buddha-Dharma at all. Traditionally, the sūtras and vinayas passed down by the various schools through the First and Second Councils already included material from discussions and instruction among the Buddha's disciples. In other words, the tradition never held that only the Buddha's own words counted as Dharma. Even teachings from disciples were accepted as Dharma, provided they accorded with the "Four Great Criteria" (also called the "Four Great Expositions" or "Four Great Contexts" — later systematized by Bodhisattva Asaṅga as the "Three Characteristics of the Buddha's Word"), aligned with the Three Dharma Seals, and led people toward liberation. These teachings were incorporated into the scriptures and vinayas collectively endorsed by the saṅgha.

So is the Mahayana bodhisattva path the Buddha-Dharma? We should apply the same standard and examine the actual substance of the bodhisattva path rather than fixating on whether every word came from the Buddha's own mouth.

Prajñā and the Three Dharma Seals

As noted in the previous section, the distinctive character of the Mahayana bodhisattva path is captured in the phrase: "Aspiration aligned with all-encompassing wisdom, grounded in great compassion, with non-apprehension as the method." In other words, the three pillars of bodhisattva practice are aspiration, compassion, and prajñā. Let's begin with prajñā.

Prajñā is a transliteration of the Sanskrit prajñā, meaning wisdom. But in the context of Mahayana teaching, it points specifically to the wisdom that penetrates "the true mark of all dharmas" (tathatā) — not merely ordinary worldly intelligence [1]. What is this "true mark of all dharmas"? It refers to dharma-nature, to the ultimate reality [2] — in other words, the nirvāṇa the Buddha realized. Looking further at when these ideas took shape and developed, the profound meaning of prajñā in the Mahayana is closely tied to the body of thought in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras [3], which began appearing around that time. The central current of the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras is the teaching that "all dharmas are empty," and that "the empty nature of dharmas is another name for nirvāṇa" [4]. So understood through the lens of early Mahayana thought, the "true mark of all dharmas" is precisely what one realizes through "all dharmas are empty." This emptiness-wisdom is prajñā — and it is what Mahayana Buddhism calls the "One True Mark Seal" or the "One Dharma Seal" [5].

Does the Mahayana "One Dharma Seal" of universal emptiness conflict with the traditional Śrāvaka "Three Dharma Seals"? How are they related? If we trace the development of the concept of emptiness, the Āgamas — which express traditional Śrāvaka thought — frequently speak of "dependent arising," "impermanence and suffering," and "no-self and not-mine," identifying "no-self and not-mine" as emptiness [6]. The same word is used for the practice of abandoning craving, desire, and attachment [7], as well as for the state of liberation such practice achieves [8]. In the Saṃyuktāgama, too, we find dependent arising itself described as emptiness: the supramundane dharma is called "the dharma in harmony with emptiness-associated dependent arising" [9], and sūtras titled the Greater Discourse on Emptiness [10] and the Discourse on Emptiness in the Ultimate Sense [11] are, in substance, teachings on dependent arising.

When early Mahayana Prajñāpāramitā sūtras developed the idea of emptiness further, they didn't depart from dependent arising and no-self — though they did lean more toward using emptiness to express the ultimate reality of nirvāṇa [12]. The elaboration grew from "seven emptinesses" to "twenty emptinesses," with "emptiness of inherent nature, ultimate emptiness, emptiness of self-nature, and emptiness of self-characteristics being the most widely employed" [13]. All of these emptinesses point to the ultimate reality of nirvāṇa — beyond time, space, and the polarities of eternalism and annihilationism. Following the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras, Bodhisattva Nāgārjuna's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā put forward the principle that "without relying on conventional truth, the ultimate truth cannot be attained" [14], showing a renewed appreciation for the conventional, everyday dimension of practice. This is why it tends to speak of "emptiness of intrinsic nature" (niḥsvabhāvaśūnyatā). The meaning of "no intrinsic nature," based on the first two verses of the Examination of Existence and Non-Existence chapter, can be summarized as "not self-originating, not singular, and not permanent" [15] — precisely what the Āgamas have been saying all along as "not-self" [16].

So whether we're looking at the "emptiness of self-nature" common in the Prajñāpāramitā sūtras or the "emptiness of intrinsic nature" championed in the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, both are simply different emphases in interpreting dependent arising. They share common ground with the Āgama teachings on "not-self, not-mine" and with the traditional Three Dharma Seals of impermanence, no-self, and nirvāṇa — all of them facets of the same truth of dependent arising, differing only in emphasis. The Mahayana "One True Mark Seal" and the Śrāvaka "Three Dharma Seals" can be unified and harmonized through the principles of dependent arising and no-self. They are deeply connected; there is no real conflict.

Compassion and Disenchantment

Compassion is the other hallmark of Mahayana Buddhism. As the treatises say, "Bodhicitta arises only from great compassion, not from any other virtue" [17] — a single line that captures the spirit of the bodhisattva's great compassion as the very root of the path.

Is compassion unique to the Mahayana? Did traditional Śrāvaka teaching say anything about it? The Āgamas record the Buddha teaching the four brahmavihāras — loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity [18]. But these practices were mostly classified as methods of meditative concentration [19], and in some cases as antidotes to anger [20]. Compassion itself originated as a doctrine of Brahmanism — a characteristic virtue of Brahmā. So practicing the four brahmavihāras, centered on compassion, was understood as a method for attaining rebirth in the Brahmā realm [21]. The Buddha took this type of worldly meditative practice — essentially a form of imaginative contemplation — and elevated it. He brought it into alignment with the principles of "relying on seclusion, relying on dispassion, relying on cessation, and tending toward letting go" — i.e., the movement toward freedom from craving (and from self) — and wove it into the framework of the seven awakening factors, making it part of the path to liberation [22]. The Buddha likely adapted the four brahmavihāras in this way to reach people steeped in Brahmanical teachings [23]. Still, looking at the Āgamas as a whole, the four brahmavihāras centered on compassion were not the mainstream framework of the Buddha's time. The dominant approach was contemplation of impermanence leading to disenchantment (nibbidā), which in turn leads to dispassion (freedom from self and possessions), and finally to liberation — the classic sequence of "arising disenchantment, fading of craving, and cessation" [24].

So do the traditional Śrāvaka path, with its emphasis on disenchantment, and the later Mahayana path, with its emphasis on compassion, actually conflict? On the surface they certainly seem different — even incompatible. But really, the difference is in where you start, not in what's at the core. As we saw earlier, dependent arising and no-self run through both the Mahayana "One True Mark Seal" and the traditional Śrāvaka "Three Dharma Seals." Here, the Śrāvaka contemplation of impermanence leading to disenchantment serves an intermediate goal — dispassion — with liberation as the ultimate aim ("cessation" being another term for liberation) [25]. "Disenchantment" is a method for entering dispassion. Thorough dispassion means letting go of attachment and craving, and attachment and craving are precisely the expressions of self-view and self-grasping. Only by relinquishing self-view and self-grasping can one fully uproot craving and attachment, then go on to eliminate the subtle, deeply rooted conceit of "I" (asmīti māna) and attain liberation [26].

The Mahayana practice of compassion, at a basic level, looks much like ordinary human kindness and sympathy. At its deepest and most thorough, it begins as an antidote to anger and culminates in what accords with no-self and not-mine — the "unconditional loving-kindness and shared-body great compassion." When the practice of compassion and compassionate action leads to freedom from self and possessions, one has broken through to the crucial turning point of liberation [27] — arriving, by a different route, at the same destination as the practitioner of disenchantment who severs all craving and reaches no-self and not-mine.

When the practice of loving-kindness reaches the "immeasurable" level of attainment, does it align with the wisdom of emptiness — of no-self and not-mine? There's a passage where Venerable Nagadatta asks the layman Citta whether the four samādhis — the samādhi of immeasurable mind, the samādhi of the signless, the samādhi of the domain of nothingness, and the samādhi of emptiness — differ only in name, or also in substance. After reflecting, Citta replies that in terms of the contemplative methods, they are indeed distinct: "different meanings, different expressions, different flavors." But in terms of their ultimate result — the destruction of greed, anger, and delusion — they share "one meaning, though different flavors." Greed, anger, and delusion are "measurable"; freedom from them is "immeasurable" [28] — and by the same token, freedom from greed, anger, and delusion is also signless, is the domain of nothingness, is emptiness. So "immeasurable" is not merely an exercise of the imagination in meditation; it is the actual, unwavering liberation of a mind free from greed, anger, and delusion [29].

The Great Bodhisattva Practice

The prajñā-wisdom of emptiness that accords with dependent arising and no-self, and the practice of compassion (unconditional loving-kindness) that leads toward no-self and freedom from greed, anger, and delusion — both have their roots in traditional Śrāvaka Buddhism. They emerged gradually from a current that was always present within it. So in terms of when these ideas became the mainstream of Indian Buddhist thought, the Mahayana bodhisattva movement was indeed a later development. But in terms of the actual substance — compassion for others and the prajñā-wisdom of emptiness — these were part of the Buddha's own teaching from the very start. They are by no means an invention.

Does this mean Mahayana bodhisattva practice and traditional Śrāvaka practice are completely identical? Not entirely. The difference lies in the "aspiration" — the first of the bodhisattva's three pillars. Traditional Śrāvaka practitioners take the Buddha as their teacher and the Buddha's achievement of liberation as their goal, emulating his path to liberation. Bodhisattvas also look to the Buddha as a model — but they take the Buddha's complete awakening as their goal and study the Buddha's own bodhisattva practice. This difference in initial aspiration is also a difference in where the path leads.

Both the Buddha and the arhants are liberated beings. In terms of liberation itself, they are identical — there's no question of one being superior. There aren't two standards for liberation in this world. Comparing who is higher, better, or more excellent is the product of self-view and self-grasping — "I am equal," "I am better," "I am worse." It's a habit and a need of ordinary, unenlightened people. But in terms of the capacity to guide and transform beings, and the ability to awaken unaided, the Buddha far surpasses the arhant. This is why we say the Buddha is the Perfected One, while the arhant is the Liberated One.

The Buddha's complete awakening was the fruit of eons of practice across countless lives. He set his course with the prajñā-wisdom of emptiness and enriched his provisions through compassion and the power of vow. The bodhisattva's practice of compassion, in particular, is inseparable from benefiting others — the spirit is to put others first, to complete one's own welfare through benefiting others. Completing one's own welfare through benefiting others — is that necessary? Is it possible? Yes.

Compassion for others is the fullest expression of the principle of dependent arising, the ultimate manifestation of no-self — and in human relationships, it's the most moving and admirable quality there is. Looking at each living being along the vertical axis of rebirth — the twelve links of dependent arising — we follow the principle "this being, that becomes; this not being, that does not become" and come to understand the absence of self: there is no "real, independent, permanent" self. Everything exists in mutual dependence. Looking along the horizontal axis — the relationship between self and other — it's the same: each living being is deeply dependent on others, and on its environment. If our very survival is like this, then surely our growth — even our ability to practice and attain liberation — is just the same. How many beings, across how many lifetimes, have supported us through their interdependence! Seen in the light of dependent arising in its fullness, how can we help but feel gratitude and respond with compassion at every moment?

Through the cultivation of empathy — the "method of self-understanding" (attūpanāyika dhamma) — one develops the precepts of non-harming, refraining from killing, stealing, sexual misconduct, and lying [30]. This is the foundation, the baseline for a healthy relationship between self and other. The bodhisattva path goes further: one actively and deliberately brings happiness to others (loving-kindness) and works to remove their suffering (compassion), putting others first in every consideration. And in this practice of prioritizing others, the desire to control, the sense of self, self-view, self-grasping, and self-conceit are noticed, countered, subdued, and dissolved. In benefiting others, one simultaneously accomplishes the benefit of self — freedom from self-grasping and self-conceit. As the treatises say, to truly understand emptiness, one must first have a tender, pliant heart [31]. And a tender heart is precisely the hallmark of one who lives in compassion for others.

From another angle, for the liberated sage, life no longer holds any troubling knots—only a quiet coolness and serenity remain. From then on, there is no longer any need to be carried across by others. Once this present life comes to an end, they "take on no further existence"—the arhat is like this, and so is the Buddha. As mentioned earlier, the question of whether the path of liberation or the bodhisattva path is more excellent holds no real meaning for those who have already been freed. But from the standpoint of ordinary beings—sentient beings still drowning in the sea of suffering—the True Dharma needs to remain long in the world to nourish them, and they naturally long all the more for bodhisattvas who are willing to cultivate the bodhisattva path for the long haul and come to benefit sentient beings. Because the bodhisattva's resolve is to give of their own time and life to learn widely the skillful means that benefit others, even if this delays their own progress toward attaining liberation—they do not begrudge it. This kind of resolve and practice, in which one perfects one's own good through the good of others—the bodhisattva path of forgetting oneself for the sake of others—is lofty and magnificent, and we cannot help but exclaim: "The Great Bodhisattva Practice!"

Starting Out as an Ordinary-Being Bodhisattva

The Mahayana bodhisattva path, which puts benefiting others first, is great and far-reaching. For ordinary beings who still bear many afflictions and sufferings within themselves, it may feel impossibly distant, inspiring sighs of looking up at something unattainable. Yet "to climb high, one must begin from below"—great achievements are not accomplished in a short time. The bodhisattva path is not lofty talk, but gradual practice, accumulated bit by bit. Of course, an ordinary Buddhist practitioner cannot ignore the bodily and mental afflictions right in front of them while grandly discoursing on compassionate world-salvation—this is like someone who wishes to rescue others in the water having to develop the skills to do so, yet these rescue skills cannot be practiced out of the water.^[32] If one can, in taming sensual greed and gathering the mind, reflect more deeply on dependent origination and experience it more, extending this to reflection on the relationship between others and oneself, thereby arousing the spirit of compassionate benefiting of others and becoming willing to care for others more through the Dharma, this is a manifestation of the bodhisattva spirit, and an excellent foundation for the bodhisattva path of ordinary beings.

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Notes

[1] In the Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom (大智度论) it is said: "Disgusted with impermanent merits and virtues, one seeks the prajñā-pāramitā of the true nature of reality" (T25, 196c); "Prajñā-pāramitā is the true nature of all dharmas, indestructible and unbreakable" (T25, 370a). Master Yinshun explains: "Prajñā is originally a common worldly term referring to wisdom. But what the Buddha sought to expound—the true nature of reality certified in right enlightenment, where subject and object are non-dual—cannot be properly designated by the worldly meaning of 'prajñā,' yet names must still be established to guide sentient beings." Lectures on the Diamond Sūtra of the Perfection of Wisdom, p. 9.

[2] "What is the original term behind Kumārajīva's translation of '诸法实相' (the true nature of all dharmas)? The scholar who has conducted systematic research on this question is Dr. Hajime Nakamura. He identified six possible original terms: dharmatā (法性, dharma-nature); sarva-dharma-tathatā (all dharmas thus being so established, i.e., dharma-nature); bhūta (the actual; the dharma-nature named 'actual,' the locus named 'ultimate,' i.e., dharma-nature); dharma-svabhāva (the self-nature of dharmas, i.e., dharma-nature); prakṛti (self-nature, i.e., dharma-nature); tattvasya lakṣaṇa (its characteristic, the principle of dependent origination)." Excerpted from Fo Guang Dictionary, p. 4998.

[3] "Although there is no precise dating for the gradual compilation of the Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras, a rough estimate can be made: Original Prajñā: 50 BCE. Lower-tier Prajñā (excluding four chapters such as the Suijizhipin and Changtipin): 50 CE. Middle-tier Prajñā: 150 CE. Upper-tier Prajñā: 200 CE." The Origin and Development of Early Mahāyāna Buddhism, p. 701, by Master Yinshun.

[4] Chapter 3 heading of An Inquiry into Emptiness: "Chapter 3: The Prajñāpāramitā Sūtras—The Profound Emptiness of All Dharmas," by Master Yinshun.

[5] The term "One True Nature Seal" (一实相印) appears scattered throughout the commentaries of ancient worthies, such as the Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sūtra (T33, 779c), the Commentary on the Avataṃsaka Sūtra (T35, 650c), the Profound Commentary on the Vimalakīrti Sūtra (T38, 555a), and others. These original commentaries also explore the similarities and differences between the Śrāvaka "Three Dharma Seals" and the Mahāyāna "One True Nature Seal," though the perspectives may differ from those in the present work. However, it is conjectured that the term "One True Nature Seal" may originate from the Avataṃsaka Sūtra: "Free from all erroneous views, skillfully observing all dharmas, attaining the seal of true nature" (T10, 97c); the Lotus Sūtra: "I, with marked-form adornment of body, with radiance illuminating the world, honored by countless multitudes, proclaim the seal of true nature" (T9, 8c); and the Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom: "The Buddha teaches three seals of true dharmas; in extensive teaching there are four, in brief teaching there is one" (T25, 223c).

[6] "World-Honored One! As for 'world emptiness,' how is it called world emptiness? The Buddha told Sāmivati: The eye is empty; the permanent, eternal, unchanging dharma is empty; what belongs to 'I' is empty. Why? This is its own nature." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 232

"The Buddha told the bhikṣus: ... Bhikṣus! The formations are like an illusion, like a flame—in a single moment they decay and perish, unreal in their arising, unreal in their passing. Therefore, bhikṣus, regarding the empty formations, you should know, rejoice, and bear in mind: the empty formations, the permanent, eternal, abiding, unchanging dharma is empty, without self or what belongs to self." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 273

"The elder Citta replied: ... What is the emptiness samādhi? It means that a noble disciple, regarding the world as empty, observes the world as empty according to reality—permanent, unchanging, not self, not belonging to self—this is called the mind of emptiness samādhi." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 567

[7] "Śāriputra said to the Buddha: World-Honored One! I have now entered the emptiness samādhi dwelling in the forest. The Buddha told Śāriputra: Excellent, excellent! Śāriputra! You have now entered and dwelt in the foremost samādhi. If bhikṣus wish to enter the foremost samādhi, they should study thus: When entering the city, when going for alms, when leaving the city, they should think: Does desire, affection, love, or attachment arise in me upon seeing forms with the eye? ..." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 236

[8] "The Buddha told the bhikṣus: ... Thus observing feeling, perception, formation, and consciousness as impermanent, subject to decay and dissolution, and as objects for the removal of desire—observing these aggregates as impermanent, subject to decay, not firm, subject to change—the mind delights in purity and liberation; this is called emptiness." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 80

"Bhikṣu Chanda, respectfully joining his palms, said to the elder Ānanda: ... From the elder Ānanda, I have now heard such a Dharma: In all formations there is emptiness, there is complete tranquility, nothing can be grasped, love is exhausted, desire is abandoned, complete cessation, nirvāṇa; the mind delights in right abiding liberation, no longer turning back; I no longer see myself, I see only the true Dharma." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 262

[9] "Then the World-Honored One told a certain bhikṣu: I have crossed beyond doubt, separated from indecision, removed the thorn of wrong views, no longer retreating. With the mind having no attachment, where is there an 'I'? For the sake of that bhikṣu, the Buddha taught the Dharma of dependent origination that accords with the noble ones' transcendent emptiness: That which has a cause, that thing exists; that thing existing, that thing arises. That is, dependent on ignorance, formations; dependent on formations, consciousness ..." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 293

[10] "What is the Great Emptiness Dharma Sūtra? It means: This being, that is; this arising, that arises. Namely, dependent on ignorance, formations; dependent on formations, consciousness ..." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 297

[11] "What is the Sūtra of Ultimate Emptiness? Bhikṣus! When the eye arises, there is no place of coming; when it ceases, there is no place of going. Thus, the eye arises unreal, having arisen it completely ceases; there is karmic result but no agent. When this aggregate ceases, a different aggregate continues, apart from conventional reckoning. The ear, nose, tongue, body, and mind are likewise explained, apart from conventional reckoning. Conventional reckoning means: This being, that is; this arising, that arises ..." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 335

[12] Cf. An Inquiry into Emptiness, Chapter 3, Section 2: "Dharma-nature Emptiness Is Another Name for Nirvāṇa," pp. 142–147, by Master Yinshun. The original text is lengthy and is abbreviated here.

[13] Cf. An Inquiry into Emptiness, Chapter 3, Section 4: "Development and Collection of Emptiness," pp. 155–164, by Master Yinshun. The original text is lengthy and is abbreviated here.

[14] "All Buddhas teach the Dharma for sentient beings in accordance with the two truths: one is conventional truth, the second is ultimate truth. If a person cannot understand and distinguish the two truths, then regarding the profound Buddha-Dharma, they will not know its true meaning. If one does not rely on conventional truth, one cannot attain ultimate truth; not attaining ultimate truth, one cannot attain nirvāṇa." Mūlamadhyamaka-śāstra (T30, 33a)

[15] "Summarizing what was stated above, self-nature (svabhāva) has three meanings: First, self-existence—meaning the self-existing reality is thus, which contradicts the right view of arising through causes and conditions. Second, singularity—not seeing mutual dependence, regarding it as individual and opposed. Third, permanence—not seeing the development through before and after, assuming it to be permanent, or otherwise to be annihilated. The three meanings of self-nature are established based on the first two verses of the 'Examination of Existence and Non-existence' chapter of this treatise." Lectures on the Verses of the Treatise on the Middle Way, p. 22, by Master Yinshun.

[16] "Then the World-Honored One told the bhikṣus: Form is impermanent; impermanent, therefore suffering; suffering, therefore not-self; what is not-self is also not what belongs to me." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 9

"Form is impermanent; what is impermanent is suffering; what is suffering is non-self. What is non-self is emptiness; emptiness is neither existent nor non-existent, and is also without self." Ekottara-āgama, Chapter 32, Sūtra 5

[17] "The bodhicitta is produced only from great compassion, not from other virtues; therefore the bodhisattva takes great compassion as the foundation." Jizang's Commentary on the Twelve-Gate Treatise (T42, 179a)

Also, similar teachings are found in the Vimalakīrti Sūtra: "Those bodhisattvas, having heard this teaching, all exclaimed that it had never been before—how the World-Honored One Śākyamuni Buddha conceals his immeasurable power of mastery, and instead uses teachings suited to those who rejoice in poverty to liberate sentient beings. These bodhisattvas likewise are able to toil humbly, generating this buddha-land through immeasurable great compassion" (T14, 553a).

[18] "The World-Honored One said: ... Ānanda! I have taught you the four immeasurables: A bhikṣu, with mind united with loving-kindness, pervading one direction to dwell therein, likewise the second, third, and fourth directions; the four intermediate directions and above and below, pervading everywhere, mind united with loving-kindness, without bondage, without enmity, without anger, without strife, supremely vast and great, immeasurably well cultivated, pervading the entire world to dwell therein. Likewise for compassion ... sympathetic joy ... mind united with equanimity, without bondage, without enmity, without anger, without strife, supremely vast and great, immeasurably well cultivated, pervading the entire world to dwell therein." Madhyama-āgama, Sūtra 86

[19] "That bhikṣu wishes to attain the second, third, and fourth dhyānas, the four immeasurables of loving-kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy, and equanimity, the dhyānas of the realm of infinite space, infinite consciousness, nothingness, and neither-perception-nor-non-perception, fully ..." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 814, etc.

[20] "The World-Honored One said: ... Cultivate impurity to cut off desire; cultivate loving-kindness to cut off anger; cultivate the in-and-out-breath to cut off scattered thoughts; cultivate the perception of impermanence to cut off self-conceit." Madhyama-āgama, Sūtras 56 and 57

[21] "Now I might cultivate the four immeasurables so that I may meet with the gods of Brahmā! Then Master Dīpaṃkara went to the seven kings and said: May Your Majesties attend to the affairs of state; I wish to cultivate the four immeasurables for the four months of the rains retreat." Dīrghāgama, Sūtra 3

Also cf. An Inquiry into Emptiness, Chapter 1, Section 4: "The Immeasurables," by Master Yinshun.

[22] "Then the World-Honored One told the bhikṣus: If a bhikṣu cultivates the mind of loving-kindness, cultivating it greatly, he gains great fruit and great benefit. How does a bhikṣu, by cultivating the mind of loving-kindness, gain great fruit and great benefit? That bhikṣu, with mind united with loving-kindness, cultivates the factor of enlightenment of mindfulness, based on seclusion, based on dispassion, based on cessation, oriented toward equanimity—up to cultivating the factor of enlightenment of equanimity, based on seclusion, based on dispassion, based on cessation, oriented toward equanimity." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 744; cf. An Inquiry into Emptiness, Chapter 1, Section 4: "The Immeasurables," by Master Yinshun.

[23] "The four immeasurables, with loving-kindness as their foundation, were adapted to Brāhmanical religion. When Śāriputra urged his old friend the Brahmin Dīrghakāla to cultivate the four immeasurables so that, at the end of his life, he would be reborn in the Brahma world, it was precisely because 'those Brahmins have long harbored love and attachment to the Brahma heaven.'" An Inquiry into Emptiness, p. 26, by Master Yinshun.

[24] "Then the World-Honored One told the bhikṣus: One should contemplate form as impermanent; one who contemplates thus has right view. One with right view generates dispassion; from dispassion, delight and craving are exhausted; with delight and craving exhausted, liberation of mind is declared. Likewise contemplating feeling, perception, formation, and consciousness as impermanent—one who contemplates thus has right view; one with right view generates dispassion; from dispassion, delight and craving are exhausted; with delight and craving exhausted, liberation of mind is declared. So it is, bhikṣus! The one whose mind is liberated, if wishing, can self-realize: Birth is exhausted, the holy life is established, what had to be done has been done, I myself know that I no longer take on further existence." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 1, etc.

"The Buddha told the bhikṣus: To be disgusted with form, to be free from desire, to be extinguished, with no further defilements arising, and with the mind rightly liberated—this is called the bhikṣu who has seen the Dharma of nirvāṇa." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 28, etc.

"The Buddha told the bhikṣus: If a bhikṣu, toward aging, sickness, and death, generates disgust, freedom from desire, and proceeds toward extinction—this is called the orientation toward the Dharma and toward what is in accordance with the Dharma." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 364, etc.

[25] "What is the ultimate extinction? ... Having thus known, one takes nothing from the world; one who takes nothing, oneself realizes nirvāṇa: Birth is exhausted, the holy life is established, what had to be done has been done, I myself know that I no longer take on further existence." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 272

"... then with all the contaminated exhausted, with the uncontaminated liberation of mind and liberation by wisdom, in the present life one knows and realizes for oneself: Birth is exhausted ..." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 964

[26] "Then the World-Honored One told the bhikṣus: The perception of impermanence, cultivated and greatly cultivated, can cut off all desire for sense pleasures, for form, and for the formless, as well as agitation, pride, and ignorance. ... Why? The perception of impermanence can establish the perception of non-self. A noble disciple abides in the perception of non-self, the mind is freed from self-conceit, and proceeds toward nirvāṇa." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 270

"The World-Honored One said: ... Mehi! If a bhikṣu obtains the perception of impermanence, he will surely obtain the perception of non-self. Mehi! If a bhikṣu obtains the perception of non-self, then in the present life he will cut off all self-conceit and attain the cessation of peaceful nirvāṇa." Madhyama-āgama, Sūtras 56 and 57

[27] "According to the true meaning of the Āgamas as expounded in this treatise, the wisdom of non-self is the sole wisdom by which the true nature of reality is realized. This is the dividing line between ordinary beings and sages: with the wisdom of non-self, one is a sage; without it, one is an ordinary being." Lectures on the Verses of the Treatise on the Middle Way, p. 325, by Master Yinshun.

"Among Chinese Buddhist practitioners, there is a saying: 'Only fear not attaining Buddhahood; do not fear not being able to teach the Dharma.' I can now say: 'Only fear not breaking through self-nature; do not fear not being comprehensive and harmonious.' Beginner Buddhist practitioners, please first break through the barrier between ordinary being and sage before speaking further!" Lectures on the Verses of the Treatise on the Middle Way, p. 27, by Master Yinshun.

[28] "(The elder Citta) replied: Venerable! Greed has measure; non-contention is the foremost immeasurable. Greed has marks; anger and delusion have marks; non-contention has no marks. Greed is something possessed; anger and delusion are something possessed; non-contention is not possessed. Furthermore, non-contention is empty of greed, empty of anger and delusion, empty and permanent and unchanging; empty of anger and delusion, empty and permanent and unchanging; empty, without self, without what belongs to self. This is called the one meaning of the Dharma in its various flavors." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 567

[29] "Generally, Śrāvaka scholars consider the four immeasurables—since their object is the vast, boundless multitude of sentient beings, with 'boundless' meaning countless and beyond calculation—to be a method of superior understanding (adhimokṣa) through imaginative contemplation, and therefore a worldly concentration. However, 'measure' arises from limitation. When one contemplates all sentient beings and transcends a mind of limitation, without arising in the discrimination of self and other, this corresponds to the empty wisdom of no-self and no-possession. The elder Citta considered that the foremost among liberations of the immeasurable mind is the liberation of the unmoved mind, empty of greed, hatred, and delusion—emptiness itself is the immeasurable. This meaning is expressed anew in what Mahāyāna calls 'non-object compassion' (无缘慈)." An Inquiry into Emptiness, p. 27, by Master Yinshun.

[30] "Then the World-Honored One told the Brahmin elder: I shall explain to you the Dharma of self-referential reflection. Listen well and reflect well! What is the Dharma of self-referential reflection? It is this: a noble disciple studies thus: I make this thought—if someone wishes to kill me, I would not be pleased; if I am displeased by something, another is likewise displeased by the same—how could I kill that person? Having thus reflected, he undertakes the precept of refraining from killing, taking no pleasure in killing. ... Therefore he maintains the precept of refraining from theft, taking no pleasure in theft, as stated above. ... Therefore he maintains the precept of refraining from sexual misconduct, as stated above. ... Therefore he maintains the precept of refraining from false speech, as stated above. ... Therefore he does not engage in divisive speech, as stated above. ... Therefore he does not engage in harsh speech toward others, as stated above. ... Therefore he does not engage in frivolous speech toward others, as stated above. These seven kinds are called the noble precepts." Saṃyuktāgama, Sūtra 1044

[31] "Those who contemplate true emptiness first have immeasurable giving, moral precepts, and meditative concentration; their minds become gentle, the fetters are thinned, and then they attain true emptiness." Great Treatise on the Perfection of Wisdom (T25, 194a)

[32] "One who wishes to rescue others in the water cannot leave the water to come ashore. To learn to swim, one must inevitably learn in the water. Bodhisattvas must long remain in saṃsāric existence to cultivate the bodhisattva path, naturally they must learn within saṃsāra; they need a set of abilities to abide long in saṃsāra and yet universally benefit sentient beings. ... Apart from 'steadfast faith and vows' and 'long-nurtured compassion,' the main ability of bodhisattvas to abide long in saṃsāra and yet broadly benefit sentient beings is 'superior understanding of emptiness' (胜解空性)." The Three Essentials of Buddhist Learning (学佛三要), p. 150, by Master Yinshun.