How Many Precepts Do Bhikkhus Have?
The wording of the bhikkhu precepts varies somewhat across the different Vinaya traditions; the main variations occur in the precepts bearing on deportment. As for the text of the grave precepts and the secondary grave precepts, although...
The wording of the bhikkhu precepts varies somewhat across the different Vinaya traditions; the main variations occur in the precepts bearing on deportment. As for the text of the grave precepts and the secondary grave precepts, although the wording differs in detail and elaboration, the items enumerated are essentially the same. Hence it is generally said that a bhikkhu has 250 precepts.
Bhikkhu and bhikkhuni precepts are commonly divided into five sections and seven categories—that is, seven categories of offense corresponding to five grades of offense. In fact, the 250-odd items of bhikkhu precepts are distributed among eight types of articles, five grades of offense, seven categories of offense, and six kinds of retribution. They are listed below:
Because these are all technical terms requiring explanation, and because some of the entries listed are transliterations from Sanskrit while others are translations of Sanskrit terms, it is necessary first to introduce their sounds and meanings:
(1) Pārājikā: Sanskrit pārājikā, also rendered in Chinese as Bōluóshìjiā. The term means "expulsion" (being cast outside the Buddha-Dharma). It is the offense of decapitation, an offense beyond remedy.
(2) Saṃghāvaśeṣa: translated as "the remaining offense of the Saṅgha," referring to one who has wounded the pure Dharma of the community. Though residual, there remains the possibility of atonement and remedy.
(3) Indeterminate (Aniyata): an offense with no fixed category. Depending on circumstances, it may constitute a pārājika, a saṃghāvaśeṣa, or a pāyattika; hence it is called "indeterminate."
(4) Naiḥsargika-pāyattika: Naiḥsargika means "requiring relinquishment," and pāyattika means "falling" (into negative consequence). Together they are called "relinquishment-and-fall." This offense arises from taking or keeping things that should not be taken or kept, or from failing to carry items that ought to be carried. The offender must first relinquish the offending item to the Saṅgha, and then atone through the procedure for the pāyattika offense.
(5) Pāyattika: also rendered in Chinese as Bōyìdǐjiā or Bōyètí, meaning "falling"—that is, falling into the hell realms. Because there is no item to be relinquished in such cases, it is commonly called "simple fall."
(6) Pratideśanīya: sometimes rendered in Chinese as Bōluóshèní or abbreviated as Déhēní, meaning "to confess to another." There are four specific bhikkhu precepts of this type; when violated, the offender must immediately face one person and declare his repentance. Hence this is also called the "method of confession."
(7) Śaikṣākaraṇīya: sometimes rendered in Chinese as Shìchājiāluóní, an alternate name for duṣkṛta, meaning "to be studied" or "to be practiced." It is therefore commonly called "that which should be studied."
(8) Settlement of disputes (Adhikaraṇasamatha): When disputes arise within the Saṅgha, and even when a particular matter gives rise to two opposing factions, the method of settling disputes is applied. The Saṅgha employs seven methods of dispute settlement. Only within this procedure is found the two-faction system of Saṅgha karma, by which the opinion of the majority prevails.
(9) Sthūlātyaya: Sanskrit sthūlātyaya, translatable as "great obstruction to the good path," "grave offense," or "gross transgression." It is sometimes called a "turbid and heavy offense." It arises primarily as an inchoate form of the pārājika and saṃghāvaśeṣa offenses, but it may also arise independently. Hence it is divided into two main categories: sthūlātyaya derived from other offenses, and sthūlātyaya arising on its own. For gradations of severity, see Chapter 5 of this work.
(10) Duṣkṛta: also rendered in Chinese as Tūsèjǐlǐduō, Tūxījílìduō, or Dúkēduō, among others. This term includes two types of offense: ācāra (improper bodily conduct) and bhāṣā (improper speech). These are minor lapses in deportment and speech; their scope is very broad, and in the precept collection they are referred to as the "precepts of common training."
Among the ten designations of these eight types of articles, the pārājika offense cannot be expiated, and the method of dispute settlement is itself a means of resolving conflicts. If the precepts may be regarded as the antiseptic of the path of liberation, then the methods of repentance are its cleansing agent. To prevent being tainted and corrupted is the function of the precepts; should one become tainted and corrupted, immediate purification is the function of the methods of repentance.
However, lest there be any misunderstanding, the methods of repentance are neither all-powerful nor omnipotent. They are helpless with regard to the four root pārājika offenses, and they are likewise powerless with respect to inherent offenses (offenses which are wrongful by their very nature). The methods of repentance can only expiate the offenses arising from the transgression of precepts—also called prohibitive offenses or rule-based offenses. For example, killing an animal is an inherent offense; the bhikkhu precept forbidding the killing of animals is a prohibitive offense. If a bhikkhu kills an animal, he incurs a twofold offense; the method of repentance can only expiate the prohibitive offense, while the inherent offense still requires requital. Therefore, we must never suppose that, because the methods of repentance exist, we may boldly and carelessly violate the precepts.
Of course, among the bhikkhu precepts, many combine both inherent and prohibitive offenses, while others involve only prohibitive offenses. Where there is an inherent offense, there must also be a prohibitive offense; but where there is a prohibitive offense, there need not be an inherent offense. As for which are dual offenses and which are single offenses, this article cannot detail them. Generally speaking, precepts concerning sexual misconduct, theft, killing, false speech, and slander involve dual offenses (both inherent and prohibitive), while precepts of deportment involve only prohibitive offenses.
As for the number of bhikkhu precepts, it is usually given as 250. The Dharmaguptaka Vinaya (the Sifen lü, or "Four-Part Vinaya") and the Mūlasarvāstivāda Vinaya (the Genben shu yiqie youbu lü) each contain exactly 250 precepts, and the arrangement of sections and categories is identical: four pārājikas, thirteen saṃghāvaśeṣas, two indeterminates, thirty naiḥsargika-pāyattikas, ninety simple pāyattikas, four pratideśanīyas, one hundred precepts to be studied, and seven methods of dispute settlement.
However, in the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya (the Wufen lü, or "Five-Part Vinaya"), the count is slightly different, totaling 259 precepts: four pārājikas, thirteen saṃghāvaśeṣas, two indeterminates, thirty naiḥsargika-pāyattikas, ninety-one simple pāyattikas (one more than the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, adding a precept on lightly treating one's teacher—although only ninety items appear in its precept text), four pratideśanīyas, one hundred precepts to be studied, and seven methods of dispute settlement.
The Sarvāstivāda Vinaya (the Shisong lü, or "Ten-Recitations Vinaya") contains 257 precepts: four pārājikas, thirteen saṃghāvaśeṣas, two indeterminates, thirty naiḥsargika-pāyattikas, ninety simple pāyattikas, four pratideśanīyas, one hundred and seven precepts to be studied (113 in the precept text itself), and seven methods of dispute settlement.
The Mahāsaṃghika Vinaya (the Sengqi lü) contains 218 precepts: four pārājikas, thirteen saṃghāvaśeṣas, two indeterminates, thirty naiḥsargika-pāyattikas, ninety-two simple pāyattikas, four pratideśanīyas, sixty-six precepts to be studied, and seven methods of dispute settlement.
The Sūtra of the Precepts of Liberation (Jietuo jiejing, or "Mokṣa Precept Sūtra") contains: four pārājikas, thirteen saṃghāvaśeṣas, two indeterminates, thirty naiḥsargika-pāyattikas, ninety simple pāyattikas, four pratideśanīyas, ninety-six precepts to be studied, and seven methods of dispute settlement—totaling 246 precepts.
As for the wording of the precept texts, the divergences are even greater; for example, the precept text of the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya exists in six different compiled editions. Among these six Vinaya texts, the Mahīśāsaka Vinaya contains the most precepts and the Mahāsaṃghika Vinaya contains the fewest. Their differences lie mainly in the precepts of deportment to be studied; in the other seven categories, the variations are relatively minor.
However, except for the four pārājikas and the thirteen saṃghāvaśeṣas, the order and sequence of articles also vary across the texts. This is presumably due to the differing perspectives of the compilers in each school. As for the chronological order in which the Buddha promulgated the precepts, apart from the four pārājikas—whose sequence can be ascertained from the Mahāsaṃghika Vinaya—we can no longer determine today which were promulgated earlier and which later. In fact, this is not an important question.
How many precepts does a bhikkhu actually have? This is a difficult question to answer, for what is recorded in the Vinaya consists of rules formulated in response to actual incidents as they arose—one incident prompting one precept. At the great council for compiling and reciting the Vinaya Piṭaka, the precepts were compiled on the basis of what the Venerable Upāli and others had heard and still remembered, and these became the written Vinaya Piṭaka transmitted to later generations. Subsequently, as the schools of sectarian Buddhism branched out, the Vinaya Piṭaka split into five divisions. While their aims were the same, their content differs somewhat in terms of selection and emphasis.
In a word, bhikkhu precepts do not necessarily have to be exactly the 250 found in the Vinaya, nor are they necessarily limited to these 250. One might even say that bhikkhu precepts are immeasurable and innumerable; therefore, all matters of deportment and conduct may be subsumed under the scope of bhikkhu precepts.
For this reason, some have interpreted the 250 precepts as encompassing the eighty-four thousand subtle practices: each of the four deportments—walking, standing, sitting, and lying down—contains 250 precepts, yielding 1,000 precepts; considering the three periods of past, future, and present, each with 1,000, yields 3,000 precepts; multiplying the 3,000 by the three bodily actions (killing, stealing, and sexual misconduct) and the four verbal actions (falsehood, frivolous talk, divisive speech, and harsh speech) gives 21,000 precepts; further multiplying by the four afflictions—greed, hatred, delusion, and equanimity-based—yields 84,000 precepts.
This is a metaphysical arithmetic; in practice, although such a rigid calculation is not employed, the precepts that may be discovered and included under bhikkhu discipline are still exceedingly numerous—so much so that, as the saying goes, the number of deportment rules is as countless as grains of sand.
Conversely, among these 250 precepts, there are in fact several that cannot be universally applied to all times and places.
In truth, even within the major Vinaya texts, the duṣkṛta offenses are exceedingly numerous: every precept contains duṣkṛta, and within a single precept there may be several varieties of duṣkṛta. The duṣkṛta items of the precepts to be studied as enumerated in the precept text only set forth the main points; beyond these, the duṣkṛta offenses that have not yet appeared in the Vinaya remain vastly many!